A social group is two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.
Contrast the social cohesion-based concept of a social group with the social identity concept
- A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals.
- Social cohesion can be formed through shared interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties, among other factors.
- The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the awareness that an individual belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.
- The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the awareness that the individual belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.
- social group: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity.
- The social identity approach: Posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of social groups is awareness of a common category membership.
- The social cohesion approach: More than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line.
- common motives and goals;
- an accepted division of labor;
- established status relationships;
- accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group; and
- the development of accepted sanctions, such as raise and punishment, when norms were respected or violated.
Social Identity Approach: The explanatory profiles of social identity and self-categorization theories.
Law Enforcement Officials: A law enforcement official is a social category, not a group. However, law enforcement officials who all work in the same station and regularly meet to plan their day and work together would be considered part of a group.
A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships.
List at least three defining characteristics of a primary group
- Primary groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together. They are psychologically comforting and quite influential in developing personal identity.
- Families and close friends are examples of primary groups.
- The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose.
- The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley in his book, Social Organization : A Study of the Larger Mind.
- Close friends: They are examples of primary groups.
- group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
- relationship: Connection or association; the condition of being related.
Charles Cooley: The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of sociology, in his book, "Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind" (1909).
Families as Social Groups: This family from the 1970s would be an example of a primary group.
Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented; their relationships are temporary.
Outline the main distinctions between primary and secondary groups
- The distinction between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He termed them "secondary" because they generally develop later in life and are much less likely to be influential on one's identity than primary groups.
- Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don't have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.
- Secondary groups include groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, and such. They also include university classes, athletic teams, and groups of co-workers.
- primary group: It is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together.
- group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
- Secondary groups: They are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented.
Classmates as Secondary Groups: A class of students is generally considered a secondary group.
Doctors as Secondary Groups: The doctor-patient relationship is another example of secondary groups.
In-groups are social groups to which an individual feels he or she belongs, while an individual doesn't identify with the out-group.
Recall two of the key features of in-group biases toward out-groups
- In- group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
- One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their group is superior.
- Intergroup aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person, because he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior being viewed by its targets as undesirable.
- The out-group homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members (e.g., "they are alike; we are diverse").
- Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group.
- A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.
- in-group bias: It refers to a preference and affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
- Intergroup aggression: It is any behavior intended to harm another person because he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior being viewed by its targets as undesirable.
- In-group favoritism: It refers to a preference and affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources and many other ways.
Henri Tajfel: The in-group and out-group concepts originate from social identity theory, which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.
French Stereotypes: Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.
The out-group homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse. " The out-group homogeneity effect has been found using a wide variety of different social groups, from political and racial groups to age and gender groups. Perceivers tend to have impressions about the diversity or variability of group members around those central tendencies or typical attributes of those group members. Thus, out-group stereotypicality judgments are overestimated, supporting the view that out-group stereotypes are over-generalizations In an experiment testing out-group homogeneity, researchers revealed that people of other races are perceived to look more alike than members of one's own race. When white students were shown faces of a few white and a few black individuals, they later more accurately recognized white faces they had seen and often falsely recognized black faces not seen before. The opposite results were found when subjects consisted of black individuals. Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group. There are three components. The first is the affective component, representing both the type of emotion linked with the attitude and the severity of the attitude. The second is a cognitive component, involving beliefs and thoughts that make up the attitude. The third is a behavioral component, relating to one's actions – people do not just hold attitudes, they act on them as well. Prejudice primarily refers to a negative attitude about others, although one can also have a positive prejudice in favor of something. Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members. Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.
Explain the purpose of a reference group
- Social comparison theory argues that individuals use comparisons with others to gain accurate self-evaluations and learn how to define the self. A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
- Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
- Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires.
- self-identity: a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
- social role: it is a set of connected behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation.
- reference group: it is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
Reference group: Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
Reference group: Reference groups become the individual's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self.
A social network is a social structure between actors, connecting them through various social familiarities.
Diagram, in miniature, your social networks using nodes and ties
- The study of social networks is called both "social network analysis" and "social network theory ".
- Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
- In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups.
- The rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to about 150 members.
- The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short.
- Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.
- Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.
- node: They are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
- social capital: The good will, sympathy, and connections created by social interaction within and between social networks.
Social Network Illustration: An example of a social network diagram
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual actors. In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups. The rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to about 150 members. The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in sociology and especially anthropology of the maximum size of a village. The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is generally short. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase "six degrees of separation" after a 1967 small world experiment by psychologist Stanley Milgram that found that two random U.S. citizens were connected by an average of six acquaintances. Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact. Somebody who is seen daily on the train or at the gym, but with whom one does not otherwise communicate, is an example of a familiar stranger. If such individuals meet in an unfamiliar setting, for example, while travelling, they are more likely to introduce themselves than would perfect strangers, since they have a background of shared experiences. Recent research suggests that the social networks of Americans are shrinking, and more and more people have no close confidants or people with whom they can share their most intimate thoughts. In 1985, the mean network size of individuals in the United States was 2.94 people. Networks declined by almost an entire confidant by 2004, to 2.08 people. Almost half, 46.3% of Americans, say they have only one or no confidants with whom they can discuss important matters. The most frequently occurring response to the question of how many confidants one has was zero in 2004.On the Internet, social interactions can occur in online communities that preclude the need to be face-to-face.
Discuss at least three central features of online communities
- An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership rituals.
- An online community can take the form of an information system where anyone can post content, such as a bulletin board system or one where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs.
- Cost plays a role in all aspects and stages for online communities. Fairly cheap and easily attainable technologies and programs have also influenced the increase in establishment of online communities.
- information system: Any data processing system, either manual or computerized
- Online communities: It is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual.
- weblog: A website in the form of an ongoing journal; a blog.
Facebook: While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such as certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are free to users such as social networks Facebook and Twitter.
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