"We proceed now to an examination of thejudiciary department of the proposed government." So begins Federalist, no. 78, the first of six essays by ALEXANDER HAMILTON on the role of the judiciary in the government established by the U.S. Constitution.
Hamilton made two principal points in the essay. First, he argued for the independence of the judiciary from the other two branches of government, the executive and the legislative. In presenting a case for the judiciary, he reached his second major conclusion: that the judiciary must be empowered to strike down laws passed by Congress that it deems "contrary to the manifest tenor of the Constitution."
In presenting his argument for the independence of the judiciary, Hamilton claimed that it was by far the weakest of the three branches. It did not, he said, have the "sword" of the executive, who is commander in chief of the nation's armed forces, nor the "purse" of the legislature, which approves all the tax and spending measures of the national government. It had, according to Hamilton, "neither FORCE nor WILL but merely judgment."
As a result of this weakness, the U.S. Constitution protects the judiciary from the other two branches by what Hamilton called "permanency in office." Article III, Section 1, of the Constitution declares, "Judges … shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour." By making the tenure of federal judges permanent and not temporary, Hamilton argued, the Constitution ensures that judges will not be changed according to the interests or whims of another branch of government. According to Hamilton, permanent tenure also recognizes the complexity of the law in a free society. Few people, he believed, will have the knowledge and the integrity to judge the law, and those deemed adequate to the office must be retained rather than replaced.
The judiciary must also be independent, according to Hamilton, so that it may fulfill its main purpose in a constitutional government: the protection of the "particular rights or privileges" of the people as set forth by the Constitution. Here, Hamilton made his second major point. To protect those rights, he proclaimed, the judiciary must be given the power of JUDICIAL REVIEW to declare as null and void laws that it deems unconstitutional.
Critics of the Constitution claimed that judicial review gave the judiciary power superior to that of the legislative branch. Hamilton responded to them in Federalist, no. 78, by arguing that both branches are inferior to the power of the people and that the judiciary's role is to ensure that the legislature remains a "servant" of the Constitution and the people who created it, not a "master":
There is no position which depends on clearer principles than that every act of a delegated authority, contrary to the tenor of the commission under which it is exercised, is void. No legislative act, therefore, contrary to the Constitution, can be valid. To deny this would be to affirm that the deputy is greater than his principal; that the servant is above his master; that the representatives of the people are superior to the people themselves.
Although judicial review is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, the U.S. Supreme Court established the legitimacy of the concept when it struck down an act of Congress in the 1803 case Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137, 2 L. Ed. 60. The courts had embraced judicial review by the twentieth century, leading some critics to maintain that the overly active use of judicial review had given the courts too much power. Whether or not the courts have demonstrated "judicial activism" by striking down legislation, Hamilton was correct in foreseeing that the U.S. Supreme Court and lower courts would protect the rights defined by the people in their Constitution.
Marbury v. Madison; Marshall, John.
The Founding
Cato’s Letters, Number 38
July 22, 1721
Thomas Gordon
To Lord Howe
July 20, 1776
Benjamin Franklin
Speech in Congress on Confederation
July 30, 1776
John Witherspoon
Letter to John Jay
March 14, 1779
Alexander Hamilton
Notes on the State of Virginia: Query 17
1781
Thomas Jefferson
New Hampshire Bill of Rights
October 31, 1783
Letter to Thomas Johnson
October 15, 1784
George Washington
Letter to the President of Congress
March 08, 1785
George Washington
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
January 16, 1786
Thomas Jefferson
Rufus King to Elbridge Gerry
May 30, 1786
Rufus King
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
July 19, 1786
James Madison
Proposed Amendments to the Articles of Confederati...
August 07, 1786
Letter to John Jay
August 15, 1786
George Washington
Letter to James Madison
December 18, 1786
George Washington
Annapolis Convention Resolution
1786
A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the...
1786
John Adams
Civis
March 04, 1787
David Ramsay
Letter from Certain Citizens of Rhode Island to th...
May 11, 1787
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
May 15, 1787
James Madison
Letter to James Madison
May 23, 1787
James Monroe
Letter to Edmund Pendleton
May 27, 1787
James Madison
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
July 06, 1787
James Madison
To William Short
July 06, 1787
James Madison
To James Monroe
July 10, 1787
James Madison
Letter from James M. Varnum, of Rhode Island, to t...
July 18, 1787
Letter to James Madison
July 20, 1787
Thomas Jefferson
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
July 18, 1787
James Madison
To Madison's Father
July 28, 1787
James Madison
To Thomas Jefferson
October 06, 1787
James Madison
To James Madison
October 13, 1787
Joseph Jones
Constitution of the United States
October 17, 1787
Lee’s Proposals
October 16, 1787
Richard Henry Lee
A Democratic Federalist, October 17, 1787
October 17, 1787
To Thomas Jefferson
October 24, 1787
James Madison
Foreigner I
December 02, 1787
A Farmer, of New Jersey: Observations on Governmen...
December 03, 1787
A Countryman I
December 15, 1787
A Landholder III
December 19, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
Letter to John Langdon
December 03, 1787
Tobias Lear
Landholder VI
December 10, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
Samuel Adams and the Constitution
December 28, 1787
A Landholder IX
December 31, 1787
Debate Regarding the Legislature
1787
James Madison
Advertisement for the Pamphlet Edition of The Fede...
January 02, 1788
Oliver Ellsworth and William Samuel Johnson Speech...
January 04, 1788
Elbridge Gerry: Defense of Conduct in Constitution...
January 05, 1788
Speeches in the Connecticut Convention
January 07, 1788
James Wadsworth
Resolutions of the Tradesmen of Boston
January 07, 1788
Speeches in the Connecticut Convention
January 09, 1788
Samuel Huntington
Massachusetts Centinel
March 27, 1788
Massachusetts Centinel
A Landholder X
March 29, 1788
Oliver Ellsworth
A Landholder X
March 03, 1788
Oliver Ellsworth
Reply to Maryland Landholder X
March 07, 1788
Luther Martin
Maryland Farmer Essay VII
May 11, 1788
Fabius I
May 12, 1788
John Dickinson
Fabius II
May 15, 1788
John Dickinson
Reasons for Dissent
May 16, 1788
Consider Arms
Fabius IV
May 19, 1788
John Dickinson
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
May 22, 1788
James Madison
Fabius V
May 22, 1788
John Dickinson
Fabius VI
May 24, 1788
John Dickinson
Speech at Virginia Ratifying Convention
July 06, 1788
Edmund Randolph
Speech at Virginia Ratifying Convention
July 10, 1788
Edmund Randolph
Speech at the Virginia Ratifying Convention
July 12, 1788
Edmond Pendleton
First Speech of June 21
July 21, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
The Ninth Pillar
July 25, 1788
Oration on the Fourth of July 1788
July 09, 1788
James Wilson
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
July 24, 1788
James Madison
Letter to James Madison
December 18, 1788
Thomas Jefferson
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
December 8, 1788
James Madison
Letter to Alexander Hamilton
1788
James Madison
Report of the House Select Committee
July 28, 1789
Letter to James Madison
October 06, 1789
Thomas Jefferson
Consolidation
December 03, 1791
Anonymous
Public Opinion
December 19, 1791
Anonymous
Parties
January 23, 1792
Anonymous
British Government
January 30, 1792
James Madison
Pacificus No. 1
July 29, 1793
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to Philip Mazzei
May 24, 1796
Thomas Jefferson
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
July 06, 1796
George Washington
Witherspoon Letter about Isaac Newton
July, 1958
Brooke Hindle
Bill of Rights
Objections at the Constitutional Convention
October 15, 1787
James Wilson's State House Speech
October 6, 1787
James Wilson
The Federal Farmer IV
October 12, 1787
Federal Farmer
A Federalist Essay
October 25, 1787
John DeWitt II
October 27, 1787
John DeWitt
Brutus II
December 1, 1787
Atticus III
December 22, 1787
Atticus
A Countryman II
December 22, 1787
Roger Sherman
Speech to the Pennsylvania Convention
December 04, 1787
James Wilson
The Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of P...
December 18, 1787
Letter to James Madison
December 20, 1787
Thomas Jefferson
Alfredus
January 18, 1788
Samuel Tenny
Letter to Alexander Donald
March 07, 1788
Thomas Jefferson
New Hampshire Ratifying Convention Proposed Admend...
July 21, 1788
New Hampshire Ratification Convention: 57-47
July 21, 1788
New Hampshire Ratifying Convention: Second Session
July 21, 1788
Virginia Ratifying Convention Amendment Proposals
July 27, 1788
New York Ratifies 30-27 with 31 proposed amendment...
July 26, 1788
New York Ratifying Convention July 26, 1788
July 26, 1788
Amendments to the Constitution of the United State...
1791
Ratification
Federalist No. 32
January 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 36
January 08, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 37
January 11, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 39
January 16, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 38
January 12, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 41
January 19, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 40
January 18, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 43
January 23, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 45
January 26, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 50
March 05, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 52
March 08, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 53
March 09, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 66
March 08, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 42
January 22, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 44
January 25, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 46
January 29, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 67
March 11, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 69
March 14, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 72
March 19, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 71
March 18, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 73
March 21, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 74
March 25, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 75
March 26, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Virginia’s Ratification
July 26, 1788
New York’s Ratification
July 26, 1788
Rhode Island’s Ratification
May 29, 1790
A Citizen of Philadelphia
January, 1787
Peletiah Webster
Address to the People of the United States
January, 1787
Benjamin Rush
Letter to Henry Knox
March 03, 1787
George Washington
Letter to Alexander Hamilton
July 10, 1787
George Washington
Letter to David Shepard
July 25, 1787
Edmund Randolph
A Foreign Spectator VII
August 17, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator X
August 24, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XV
October 04, 1787
Nicholas Collin
Gerry, Mason, and Randolph Decline to Sign the Con...
October 17, 1787
A Foreign Spectator XX
October 12, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XXI
October 13, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XXIII
October 17, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XXIV
October 18, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XXV
October 21, 1787
Nicholas Collin
Letter to Patrick Henry
October 24, 1787
George Washington
A Foreign Spectator XXVIII
October 28, 1787
Nicholas Collin
Caesar, Letter I
October 01, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XXIX
October 02, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator XXIX
October 2, 1787
Nicholas Collin
Centinel I
October 05, 1787
Samuel Bryan
James Wilson's State House Speech
October 6, 1787
James Wilson
Crito
October 06, 1787
Samuel Hopkins
Federal Farmer II
October 09, 1787
Federal Farmer
Federal Farmer III
October 10, 1787
Federal Farmer
The Federal Farmer IV
October 12, 1787
Federal Farmer
Federal Farmer V
October 13, 1787
Federal Farmer
Convention Essay
October 13, 1787
One of the Four Thousand
October 15, 1787
Caesar, Letter II
October 17, 1787
Brutus I
October 18, 1787
Brutus
Atticus II
October 18, 1787
Atticus
Ch. 7: The Debate over Ratification
1789
James Madison
Calling Massachusetts State Convention
October 20, 1787
Samuel Adams
John DeWitt I
October 22, 1787
John DeWitt
Monitor Essay
October 24, 1787
Anonymous
Cato III
October 25, 1787
Cato
A Federalist Essay
October 25, 1787
The Georgia State Convention
October 26, 1787
George Mathews
Federalist No. 1
October 27, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
John DeWitt II
October 27, 1787
John DeWitt
Philo-Publius I
October 30, 1787
William Duer
Federalist No. 2
October 31, 1787
John Jay
Virginia Calls for State Convention
October 31, 1787
John Beckley
Brutus II
December 1, 1787
Federalist No. 3
December 03, 1787
John Jay
A Landholder I
December 05, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
John DeWitt III
December 05, 1787
John DeWitt
Pennsylvania elects 69 delegates
December 06, 1787
Centinel III
December 08, 1787
Centinel
Letter to Alexander Hamilton
December 10, 1787
George Washington
Letter to Bushrod Washington
December 10, 1787
George Washington
Federalist No. 5
December 10, 1787
John Jay
Delaware calls for state convention
December 10, 1787
A Landholder II
December 12, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
Connecticut Elects 168 delegates for State Convent...
December 12, 1787
Federalist No. 6
December 14, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
"Socius" Essay
December 14, 1787
Carlisle Gazette
Federalist No. 7
December 15, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Brutus III
December 15, 1787
Brutus
Essay by A Georgian
December 15, 1787
Philo-Publius II
December 16, 1787
William Duer
The Landholder III
December 19, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
Federalist No. 8
December 20, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 9
December 21, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Cato V
December 22, 1787
Cato
Atticus III
December 22, 1787
Atticus
A Countryman II
December 22, 1787
Roger Sherman
Federalist 10
December 22, 1787
James Madison
Agrippa I
December 23, 1787
Agrippa
Federalist No. 11
December 24, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
A Landholder IV
December 26, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
A Democratic Federalist, November 26, 1787
December 26, 1787
Tench Coxe
Federalist No. 12
December 27, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Agrippa II
December 27, 1787
Agrippa
A Pennsylvania Farmer
December 27, 1787
New Jersey Elects 38 Delegates
December 27, 1787
Federalist No. 13
December 28, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Brutus IV
December 29, 1787
Philo-Publius III
December 29, 1787
William Duer
Letter to David Stuart
December 30, 1787
George Washington
Federalist No. 14
December 30, 1787
James Madison
Agrippa III
December 30, 1787
Centinel IV
December 30, 1787
Centinel
Federalist No. 15
December 01, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Philo-Publius IV
December 01, 1787
William Duer
Agrippa IV
December 03, 1787
A Landholder V
December 03, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
Federalist No. 16
December 04, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Georgia Elects 26 Delegates
December 04, 1787
Speech to the Pennsylvania Convention
December 04, 1787
James Wilson
Federalist No. 17
December 05, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to James Madison
December 07, 1787
George Washington
Federalist No. 18
December 07, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Delaware Ratifies 30-0
December 07, 1787
Thomas Collins
Delaware Ratifying Convention Meets
December 07, 1787
Agrippa V
December 11, 1787
Federalist No. 21
December 12, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
"Cato" Essay
December 12, 1787
Pennsylvania ratifies 46-23
December 12, 1787
Cato VI
December 13, 1787
Cato
Brutus V
December 13, 1787
Brutus
Federalist No. 22
December 14, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to Charles Carter
December 14, 1787
George Washington
A Landholder VII
December 17, 1787
Oliver Ellsworth
Federalist No. 23
December 18, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Agrippa VII
December 18, 1787
The New Jersey Form of Ratification: 38-0
December 18, 1787
New Jersey Convention
December 18, 1787
The Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of P...
December 18, 1787
Federalist No. 24
December 19, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to James Madison
December 20, 1787
Thomas Jefferson
The Jefferson-Madison Exchange
March 15, 1789
James Madison
Federalist No. 25
December 21, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 26
December 22, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Atticus IV
December 22, 1787
A Landholder VIII
December 24, 1787
Agrippa VIII
December 25, 1787
Federal Farmer VI
December 25, 1787
Richard Henry Lee
Federalist No. 28
December 26, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Centinel VII
December 27, 1787
Centinel
Federalist No. 29
December 29, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Centinel VIII
December 29, 1787
Centinel
Federalist No. 30
December 30, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Dates of Ratification of the Constitution
1787
John DeWitt IV
December, 1787
John DeWitt
Federal Farmer 7
December 31, 1787
Richard Henry Lee
America Essay
December 31, 1787
Noah Webster
"A Freeman" Essay to the People of Connecticut
December 31, 1787
Agrippa X
January 01, 1788
Federalist No. 33
January 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Cato VII
January 03, 1788
Cato
Brutus VII
January 03, 1788
Brutus
Federal Farmer VIII
January 03, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Connecticut ratifying convention
January 03, 1788
Federal Farmer IX
January 04, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Federalist No. 35
January 05, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 34
January 05, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to Governor Edmund Randolph
January 07, 1788
George Washington
Federal Farmer X
January 07, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Agrippa XI
January 08, 1788
The Connecticut Convention Ratifies: 128-40
January 09, 1788
Letter to James Madison
January 10, 1788
George Washington
Federal Farmer 11
January 11, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Federal Farmer XII
January 12, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Federal Farmer XIII
January 14, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Speech to the Massachusetts Convention
January 15, 1788
Fisher Ames
The State Soldier Essay I
January 16, 1788
Brutus IX
January 17, 1788
Brutus
Federal Farmer XIV
January 17, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Federal Farmer XV
January 18, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Alfredus
January 18, 1788
Samuel Tenny
Agrippa XIII
January 22, 1788
A Freeman I
January 23, 1788
Federal Farmer XVI
January 23, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Federal Farmer XVII
January 23, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
Brutus X
January 24, 1788
Brutus
Agrippa XIV Part 1
January 25, 1788
Federal Farmer XVIII
January 25, 1788
Richard Henry Lee
To Thomas Cockey Deye
January 27, 1788
Luther Martin
Federalist No. 47
January 30, 1788
James Madison
A Freeman II
January 30, 1788
Brutus XI
January 31, 1788
Brutus
Address by a Plebian
January, 1788
Federalist No. 48
March 01, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 49
March 02, 1788
James Madison
Letter to James Madison
March 05, 1788
George Washington
Federalist No. 51
March 6, 1788
James Madison
Massachusetts Ratifying Convention Proposed Amendm...
March 06, 1788
A Freeman III
March 06, 1788
The State Soldier Essay II
March 06, 1788
Massachusetts ratifies 187-168 with 9 proposed ame...
March 06, 1788
Letter to Marquis de LaFayette
March 07, 1788
George Washington
Letter to Alexander Donald
March 07, 1788
Thomas Jefferson
Federalist No. 55
March 13, 1788
James Madison
Brutus XII (Part 2)
March 14, 1788
Brutus
Federalist No. 56
March 16, 1788
James Madison
"Elihu" Essay
March 18, 1788
Federalist No. 57
March 19, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 58
March 20, 1788
James Madison
Brutus XIII
March 21, 1788
Brutus
Sidney Essay No. 2
March 21, 1788
Federalist No. 59
March 22, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 60
March 23, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 61
March 26, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 62
March 27, 1788
James Madison
Brutus XIV (Part 1)
March 28, 1788
Brutus
Federalist No. 63
March 01, 1788
James Madison
Letter to James Madison
March 02, 1788
George Washington
Federalist No. 64
March 05, 1788
James Madison
Brutus XIV (Part 2)
March 06, 1788
Brutus
Federalist No. 65
March 07, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Maryland Farmer No. 3, Part 1
March 07, 1788
A Landholder XI
March 10, 1788
Oliver Ellsworth
Federalist No. 68
March 12, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
The State Soldier III
March 12, 1788
One of the People Called Quakers in the State of V...
March 12, 1788
Federalist No. 70
March 15, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
A Landholder XII
March 17, 1788
Oliver Ellsworth
The State Soldier Essay IV
March 19, 1788
Brutus 15
March 20, 1788
Brutus
Brutus XV
March 20, 1788
Brutus
A Landholder XIII
March 24, 1788
Oliver Ellsworth
Federalist No. 76
May 01, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 77
May 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Maryland Farmer Essay VII
May 04, 1788
Brutus XVI
May 10, 1788
Brutus
Fabius III
May 17, 1788
John Dickinson
Letter to John Armstrong
May 25, 1788
George Washington
Letter to Marquis de Chastellux
May 25, 1788
George Washington
Fabius VII
May 26, 1788
John Dickinson
Letter to Marquis de LaFayette
May 28, 1788
George Washington
Fabius VIII
May 29, 1788
John Dickinson
Fabius IX
May 01, 1788
John Dickinson
Philodemos Essay
May 12, 1788
Philodemos
Federalist 78
May 18, 1788
Publius
South Carolina Ratifying Convention
May 23, 1788
Observations on the Constitution
May 25, 1788
James Monroe
Federalist No. 78
May 28, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
New York Ratifying Convention
July 17, 1788
Federalist No. 79
July 18, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Virginia Ratifying Convention June 18, 1788
July 18, 1788
New Hampshire Ratifying Convention Proposed Admend...
July 21, 1788
New Hampshire Ratification Convention: 57-47
July 21, 1788
New Hampshire Ratifying Convention: Second Session
July 21, 1788
New York Ratifying Convention
July 24, 1788
Virginia Ratifying Convention
July 27, 1788
Virginia Ratifying Convention Amendment Proposals
July 27, 1788
Letter to Benjamin Lincoln
July 29, 1788
George Washington
Federalist 84
July 16, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to John Trumbull
July 20, 1788
George Washington
New York Ratifies 30-27 with 31 proposed amendment...
July 26, 1788
New York Ratifying Convention July 26, 1788
July 26, 1788
Federalist No. 85
August 13, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to Alexander Hamilton
August 28, 1788
George Washington
Letter to Alexander Hamilton
October 03, 1788
George Washington
Letter to Benjamin Lincoln
October 26, 1788
George Washington
A Citizen of New Haven I
December 18, 1788
Roger Sherman
A Citizen of New Haven II
December 25, 1788
Roger Sherman
A Citizen of New York
1788
John Jay
The Federalist
1788
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to Benjamin Lincoln
January 31, 1789
George Washington
Letter to Thomas Jefferson
March 04, 1790
James Madison
Federalist papers
Federalist No. 32
January 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 36
January 08, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 37
January 11, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 39
January 16, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 38
January 12, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 41
January 19, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 40
January 18, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 43
January 23, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 45
January 26, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 50
March 05, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 52
March 08, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 53
March 09, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 66
March 08, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 42
January 22, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 44
January 25, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 46
January 29, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 67
March 11, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 69
March 14, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 72
March 19, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 71
March 18, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 73
March 21, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 74
March 25, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 75
March 26, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Ch. 7: The Debate over Ratification
1789
James Madison
A Republican I: To James Wilson, Esquire
October 25, 1787
Federalist No. 1
October 27, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist 1
October 27, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 2
October 31, 1787
John Jay
Federalist No. 3
December 03, 1787
John Jay
Federalist No. 4
December 04, 1787
John Jay
Federalist No. 5
December 10, 1787
John Jay
Federalist No. 6
December 14, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 7
December 15, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 8
December 20, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 9
December 21, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist 10
December 22, 1787
James Madison
Federalist 10
December 22, 1787
James Madison
Federalist 10
December 22, 1787
James Madison
Federalist 10
December 22, 1787
James Madison
Federalist No. 11
December 24, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 12
December 27, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 13
December 28, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to David Stuart
December 30, 1787
George Washington
Federalist No. 14
December 30, 1787
James Madison
Federalist No. 15
December 01, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 16
December 04, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 17
December 05, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to James Madison
December 07, 1787
George Washington
Federalist No. 18
December 07, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 19
December 08, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 20
December 11, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 21
December 12, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 22
December 14, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 23
December 18, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 24
December 19, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 25
December 21, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 26
December 22, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 27
December 25, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 28
December 26, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 29
December 29, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 30
December 30, 1787
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 31
January 01, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 33
January 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 35
January 05, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 34
January 05, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 35
January 05, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 47
January 30, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 48
March 01, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 48
March 01, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 49
March 02, 1788
James Madison
Letter to James Madison
March 05, 1788
George Washington
Federalist No. 51
March 6, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 51
March 08, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 52
March 08, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 54
March 12, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 55
March 13, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 55
March 15, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 56
March 16, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 57
March 19, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 58
March 20, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 58
March 20, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 59
March 22, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 60
March 23, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 61
March 26, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 62
March 27, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 62
March 27, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 63
March 01, 1788
James Madison
Federalist 63
March 01, 1788
James Madison
Federalist No. 64
March 05, 1788
James Madison
Federalist 64
March 5, 1788
John Jay
Federalist No. 65
March 07, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 68
March 12, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 70
March 15, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 76
May 01, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 77
May 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist 78
May 18, 1788
Publius
Federalist No. 78
May 28, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 79
July 18, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 80
July 21, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 81
July 25, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 82
July 02, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 83
July 05, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 84
July 16, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist No. 85
August 13, 1788
Alexander Hamilton
Letter to Alexander Hamilton
August 28, 1788
George Washington
The Federalist
1788
Alexander Hamilton
Parties
January 23, 1792
James Madison
Helvidius Nos. 1, 2, and 4
August 24, 1793
James Madison
Farewell Address
October 19, 1796
George Washington
Antifederalists
Z: the Continental Convention
May 16, 1787
Constitutional Convention
July 20, 1787
George Mason
Luther Martin’s Objections
July 27, 1787
Luther Martin
Objections of Edmund Randolph
October 10, 1787
Objections to the Constitution
October 13, 1787
George Mason
Letter to Patrick Henry
October 24, 1787
George Washington
Curtius
October 29, 1787
Curtius
Federal Farmer I
October 08, 1787
Federal Farmer
Cato II
October 11, 1787
Cato
An Old Whig I
October 12, 1787
An Old Whig II
October 17, 1787
Brutus I
October 18, 1787
Brutus
Ch. 7: The Debate over Ratification
1789
James Madison
Brutus I
October 18, 1787
Brutus
An Old Whig III
October 20, 1787
Centinel II
October 24, 1787
Centinel
A Republican I
October 25, 1787
An Old Whig IV
October 27, 1787
Cincinnatus I: To James Wilson, Esquire
December 01, 1787
Cincinnatus
An Old Whig V
December 01, 1787
An Old Whig VI
December 2, 1787
An Officer of the Late Continental Army
December 06, 1787
Philadelphiensis I
December 07, 1787
Philadelphiensis
Cato IV
December 08, 1787
Cato
Cincinnatus II: To James Wilson, Esquire
December 08, 1787
Cincinnatus
Brutus, Jr.
December 08, 1787
Brutus
Massachusetts Centinel
December 10, 1787
Centinel
Cincinnatus III: To James Wilson, Esquire
December 15, 1787
Cincinnatus
An American: The Crisis
December 17, 1787
Centinel
Brutus on Mason's Objections
December 22, 1787
Brutus
Cincinnatus IV: To James Wilson, Esquire
December 22, 1787
Cincinnatus
Maryland Farmer
December 28, 1787
A Federal Republican: A Review of the Constitution
December 28, 1787
An Old Whig VII
December 28, 1787
Philadelphiensis II
December 28, 1787
Philadelphiensis
A Countryman III
December 29, 1787
Speech to Maryland State House of Delegates
December 29, 1787
Centinel V
December 04, 1787
Samuel Bryan
Philadelphiensis III
December 05, 1787
Cincinnatus VI
December 06, 1787
A Countryman IV
December 06, 1787
Philadelphiensis IV
December 12, 1787
Agrippa VI
December 14, 1787
Philadelphiensis V
December 19, 1787
A Countryman V
December 20, 1787
One of the People: Antifederalist Arguments
December 25, 1787
Centinel VI
December 25, 1787
Centinel
Philadelphiensis VI
December 26, 1787
Brutus VI
December 27, 1787
Brutus
Genuine Information I
December 28, 1787
Luther Martin
Agrippa IX
December 28, 1787
Genuine Information II
January 01, 1788
Luther Martin
Genuine Information III
January 04, 1788
Luther Martin
Genuine Information IV
January 08, 1788
Luther Martin
Centinel IX
January 08, 1788
Centinel
Brutus VIII
January 10, 1788
Brutus
Philadelphiensis VII
January 10, 1788
Genuine Information V
January 11, 1788
Luther Martin
Agrippa XII Part 1
January 11, 1788
Centinel X
January 12, 1788
Centinel
Agrippa XII Part 2
January 14, 1788
The Report of the New York’s Delegates to the Cons...
January 14, 1788
Genuine Information VI
January 15, 1788
Luther Martin
Centinel XI
January 16, 1788
Centinel
Genuine Information VII
January 18, 1788
Luther Martin
Agrippa XII Part 3
January 18, 1788
Genuine Information VIII
January 22, 1788
Luther Martin
Philadelphiensis VIII
January 23, 1788
A Copy of a Letter from Centinel
January 23, 1788
Centinel
Centinel XII
January 23, 1788
Centinel
Agrippa XIV Part 2
January 29, 1788
Agrippa XV
January 29, 1788
Genuine Information IX
January 29, 1788
Luther Martin
Maryland Farmer No. 3, Part 1
March 07, 1788
Brutus 15
March 20, 1788
Brutus
Brutus XV
March 20, 1788
Brutus
Brutus No. 16
May 10, 1788
Letter to Benjamin Lincoln
August 28, 1788
George Washington
Letter to Benjamin Lincoln
January 31, 1789
George Washington
Parties
January 23, 1792
James Madison
Farewell Address
October 19, 1796
George Washington
Constitutional Convention
The Slave Trade Clause
August 25, 1787
Notes on Debates in Congress
January 28, 1783
James Madison
Notes on Debates in Congress
March 21, 1783
James Madison
John Jay to Thomas Jefferson
October 27, 1786
John Jay
Letter to Governor Edmund Randolph
December 21, 1786
George Washington
Letter to David Humphreys
December 26, 1786
George Washington
John Jay to George Washington
January 07, 1787
John Jay
Letter to Henry Knox
March 03, 1787
George Washington
Letter to Henry Knox
March 08, 1787
George Washington
Edmund Randolph to James Madison
March 27, 1787
Edmund Randolph
Letter to Edmund Randolph
March 28, 1787
George Washington
Letter to James Madison
March 31, 1787
George Washington
Letter to Henry Knox
May 02, 1787
George Washington
James Madison to Edmund Randolph
May 08, 1787
James Madison
Philadelphia Freeman’s Journal
May 16, 1787
The Rules of the Convention
May 29, 1787
The Virginia Plan
May 29, 1787
Variant Texts of the Virginia Plan
May 29, 1787
Edmund Randolph
Summary of Letters from Jay, Knox and Madison
May, 1787
Henry Knox
The Judiciary
August 27, 1787
The Madison-Sherman Exchange
July 06, 1787
The Three-Fifths Clause and Federal Representation
July 11, 1787
Introducing a Fateful Compromise: A Debate on Prop...
July 13, 1787
The Revised Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan
July 15, 1787
Return to Starting Point: New Jersey Plan
July 15, 1787
The Two Authorizations Revisited
July 16, 1787
The Hamilton Plan
July 18, 1787
Partly National, Partly Federal
July 30, 1787
The Three-Fifths Clause
July, 1787
Constitutional Convention
The Constitutional Convention: The Three-Fifths Cl...
July, 1787
The Gerry Committee Report
July 05, 1787
The Three-Fifths Clause Revisited
July 16, 1787
The Fugitive Slave Clause
October 17, 1787
The Committee of Detail Report
August 06, 1787
The Constitutional Convention: The Fugitive Slave...
July, 1787
A Foreign Spectator I
August 06, 1787
Nicholas Collin
Atticus I
August 09, 1787
Atticus
A Foreign Spectator IV
August 10, 1787
Nicholas Collin
A Foreign Spectator VI
August 16, 1787
Nicholas Collin
Constitutional Convention: The Slave Trade Clause
August, 1787
Creating the Electoral College
October 06, 1787
Gerry, Mason, and Randolph Decline to Sign the Con...
October 17, 1787
Objections at the Constitutional Convention
October 15, 1787
The Powers of Congress
October 12, 1787
The Signing of the Constitution
October 17, 1787
Call for state ratifying conventions by Confederat...
October 28, 1787
Richard Henry Lee to George Mason
October 01, 1787
Richard Henry Lee
Delaware calls for state convention
December 10, 1787
Cato No. 5
December 22, 1787
Letter to Charles Carter
December 14, 1787
George Washington
Federal Farmer 7
December 31, 1787
Federal Farmer 11
January 10, 1788
State Constitutions
Draft Constitution for Virginia
July 13, 1776
New Jersey Constitution
July 3, 1776
Massachusetts Bill of Rights
March 02, 1780
Religion
Letter to Reverend Francis Adrian Vanderkemp
May 28, 1788
George Washington