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Chapter 1

Beijing Olympic Village p. 15

The Chinese Government intends to make the 2008 Olympics the “greenest” ever. Plans for sustainable resource use and minimal environmental effects include buildings constructed with environmentally friendly materials and the latest energy-saving technology. Solar water heaters will provide hot showers for athletes, while windmills and photovoltaic cells will contribute 20 percent of the electricity used in the Olympic Village. Rain will be collected and used to water playing fields. Toilets will use recycled water. New wastewater treatment plants will reduce sewage effluents, and two new recycling plants will reduce solid waste disposal. Reforestation projects and fuel-switching are expected to offset carbon dioxide emissions and make the games climate neutral. Thirty new parks are being built on the outskirts of Beijing. There will be one every 3 km along the 4th Ring Road, which crosses the outer edge of the Olympic Green.

You can see the Olympic green in Google Earth, but facility development had only just begun when the satellite image was made. In this view, the Olympic Sports Stadium and the Olympic Gymnasium were under construction. Other facilities will fill most of the green open space north of the stadium. You can see a map of venues at http://en.beijing2008.cn/46/67/column211716746.shtml

Questions:

1. Approximately how far is it from one side of the metro area to the other? (Hint: follow the 4th ring road around the city)

2. How does this compare to an American city such as Los Angeles?

3. If you travel about 8 km straight south from the Olympic village, you reach the “Forbidden City.” Who once lived there?

4. Is there now open space for building a new city park every 3 km along the 4th ring road?

5. How, then, will the city carry out this plan?

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Amazonian deforestation p. 22

You probably already know that the Amazonian rainforest is the largest and most species-rich tropical forest in the world. With more than 7 million km2 (1.2 billion acres), the Amazon basin contains over half the world’s tropical rainforest. You probably also know that the Amazon is rapidly being deforested. Between 1970 and 2000, it’s estimated that more than 700,000 km2 (an area twice the size of Portugal) of the Amazon were cleared, logging companies and by farmers and ranchers looking for new land. There are a number of reasons that settlers are flooding into the Amazon. Part of the story is government policies that favor ranching and grant title to the land to anyone who cuts down the forest and turns it into pasture. Another critical factor is expansion of agriculture in the Cerrado (Savanna) just to the south (see also chapter 9 in textbook). Small subsistence farms are being bought out (either legally or through duress) so that large-scale, industrial farms can increase soy production. These landless farmers move further into the virgin forest in search of homesteads.

Roads provide access for land migrants. Even at very high altitude, you can see the fishbone pattern where deforested patches line lateral roads that branch off from main highways. There have been many clashes between native people, farmers, and ranchers over who owns land in this turbulent and chaotic frontier region. The Landless Workers Movement reports that between 19985 and 2000 more than 1,237 rural workers were killed in clashes with loggers and ranchers. In 2005, Sister Dorothy Stang, an American nun who had been working on development for the rural poor was also murdered. Sister Dorothy, who had been trying to prevent attacks on settlements, frequently reported human rights abuses, and she was teaching locals how to live in the forest sustainably. She was assassinated by pistoleiros (gunmen) hired by a rancher near Anapu, about 350 km east of the spot we’ve marked on Google Earth.

Questions:

1. What direction is the major highway running in this area?

2. Roughly how far apart are the “fishbone” lateral roads branching off the main highway? About how long are these roads?

3. Based on the sizes of the cleared patches off the roads, would you say that large or small landholders have made these clearings?

4. Based on what you see in these images, and on images on p. 257, explain how deforestation proceeds after a road is cut through the forest.

5. What is the huge river that runs east-west about 180 km north of the place marker?

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Rio de Janeiro, Brazil p. 26

Sustainable development was an idea promoted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, a global meeting to discuss ways to support both environmental sustainability and development for the world's poor people. The ideas developed in Rio have been very influential but often hard to achieve. Currently Rio, like other large cities in developing countries, faces enormous challenges to its sustainable development.

Questions:

1. Zoom in and out, and move around the Rio area to get a feel for the size and density of the city. Why might it be difficult to provide services like sanitation and clean water to a rapidly growing city like Rio?

2. As you peruse the beaches and parks of the city, can you see signs of both wealth and poverty? How does the size of Rio compare to the size of your town?

3. How safe is it to live in Rio de Janeiro? (hint: try a Google search)

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Chapter 2

Tuvalu p. 34

The islands of Tuvalu are being abandoned due to global warming. The residents of this small island nation may be the world’s first climate refugees. These islands are atolls, made of coral that once ringed islands. The effects of global warming could be both an ecological and human disaster in small island nations, such as this.

Questions:

1. Describe the shape of an atoll.

2. Find the island containing Fongafale, the nation’s capital. (Hint: turn on island names in the borders layer) About what proportion of this island is high and dry enough to support vegetation (visible as green areas)--almost none, about half, or almost all? Zoom in to the other islands: do any of the islands seem to have a high proportion of vegetated (green) areas?

3. Zoom in close to the town of Fongafale. What is the long, straight gray strip in that town? Can you find any place else on this island or the others that could hold a features like this?

4. What would happen to the town if the dark lagoon next to the airstrip were to rise a meter or so and flood the airstrip?

5. Find your measuring tool (look under the View menu at the top of the window, if it's not already visible). How far is it to Fiji, the nearest major populated island group? How far to the nearest continent?

6. If people and goods had to come and go by sea, instead of by air, what are two or three nearby population centers that people could go to or trade with?

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Paradigm shifts: Valley of Yosemite National Park p. 41

Yosemite National Park is well known for many reasons, including the fact that John Muir developed much of his philosophy toward wilderness here. Yosemite is also a place with dramatic glacial features, including flat-bottomed, U-shaped valleys (compare these to the steep, V-shaped valleys in most mountains), and steep cliffs. When Muir lived in Yosemite, the dominant explanation for these features was erosion by water in Noah's flood. Muir and others turned this theory on its head by demonstrating that great, ancient glaciers had to be responsible for such features. This new explanation led to a "paradigm shift," a revolution in how people understood land forms climate, and earth history.

Questions:

1. Can you see the flat-bottomed valleys in this area? What is the green in the valley floor, and why are the valley walls not green?

2. Zoom out and west to the place mark "Northwest of Yosemite." What are the light-colored patches interspersed among the green?

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Texas City p. 47

Texas City is one of many places where residential neighborhoods adjoin industrial zones. For people living in the neighborhoods, the health risks associated with air and water contamination can be severe, but many cannot afford to move to a new area.

Questions:

1. What are the many white circles in the image?

2. Zoom in and move just north of the industrial zone. You can find neighborhood blocks with driveways but no houses: often corporations buy up these neighborhoods to avoid charges of endangering the health of residents. What would you do if you lived one block farther north of these vacated blocks?

3. Zoom out until you can see the position of Texas City in relation to the Gulf of Mexico. What kind of natural weather event frequently threatens Gulf Coast communities?

4. How exposed is Texas City to these events? How easy would it be for residents to evacuate in an emergency?

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Chapter 3

Great Bear Rainforest 52

Stretching for 250 miles along the coast of British Columbia from the northern tip of Vancouver Island to the Alaskan border, the Great Bear Rainforest encompasses more than 21 million acres of temperate rainforest. Narrow, misty fjords cut deep into the rugged coastal mountains. Ancient forests of giant cedar, spruce and fir shelter wolves, bear, deer, mountain lions, and other native wildlife. A unique race of white or cream-colored bears found only here are called Kermode bears by scientists, but are popularly known as “spirit bears,” the name given them by first nations Gitga’at people. It’s estimated that 20 percent of the world’s remaining wild salmon migrate up the wild rivers of this rugged coastline.

In 2006, officials from the provincial government, First Nations tribes, logging companies, and environmental groups signed a historic agreement for managing the world’s largest remaining intact temperate coastal rainforest. About 6 million ha (15.5 million acres), or an area about the size of Switzerland will be managed within this area. One-third will be entirely protected from logging. In the remaining area, only selective, sustainable logging will be allowed. The area encompassed by the Great Bear Rainforest extends from the northern end of Victoria Island almost to Prince Rupert. The Queen Charlotte Islands are included in this protected area.

Questions:

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Niagara Falls p. 58

These falls are famous because of their volume and height, although they are not the tallest in North America. The original reason for settlement at the falls was for hydroelectric power production that made Niagara and Buffalo one of the early industrial centers in New York. In fact, the falls are now carefully managed to allow maximum visual water effect in the day but to divert large amounts of water for power production at night.

Not far east of this site is another expression of the area's long industrial history. Love Canal, infamous for its chemical contamination, is near here, in Niagara Falls, New York.

Questions:

1. What body of water is drained by the falls? What is the next lake downstream of the falls?

2. Move your cursor over the falls, from the lake (upstream) to just below the falls downstream. Approximately what is the elevation change at the falls? (Elevations are reported for your pointer if you have the “terrain” layer turned on. Look for the elevation at the bottom of the window, next to the latitude and longitude.)

3. What is the term for the kind of energy embodied in falling water? (refer to chapter 3)

4. What is a term for the energy stored in the lake that has not yet changed elevation at the falls?

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Measuring Energy Flows in Cedar Bog Lake p. 63

In 1936, a young graduate student named Ray Lindeman began his Ph.D. research on a small, marshy pond in Minnesota called Cedar Bog Lake. This pioneering work helped reshape the ways ecologists think about the systems they study. At the time, most ecologists were concerned primarily with descriptive histories and classifications of biological communities. A typical lake study might classify the taxonomy and life histories of resident species and describe the lake's stage in development from open water to marsh and then to forest. Having poor eyesight, Lindeman couldn't do the microscopy necessary to identify the many species of algae, protozoans, other aquatic organisms in the lake. Instead, following the ideas of two contemporary English ecologists, Charles Elton and A. G. Tansley, he concentrated on biological communities as systems and looked at broad categories of feeding relationships for which he coined the term trophic levels (from the Greek word for eating).

Aided by his wife, Eleanor, Lindeman spent many hours collecting samples of aquatic plants and algae, grazing and predatory zooplankton and fish, and the benthic (bottom-dwelling) fauna of worms, insect larvae, crustaceans, and sediment. Back in the laboratory, he measured photosynthetic rates for the plants, respiration rates of the animals, and total energy content of organic compounds in each of the different trophic levels. This was the first empirical study of trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Describing the system in terms of energy flows was a radical departure from ecological methods at the time. Lindeman made a careful balance sheet of the total energy content in the biomass at each trophic level, the energy used in respiration, and the energy content of organic matter deposited in the sediment. To his surprise, he found that each successive feeding level contained only about 10 percent of the energy captured by the level below it. The remainder is lost as hear or deposited in sediments, he argued, because of the work performed by organisms as well as the inefficiency of biological energy transformations. In his dissertation, Lindeman showed that energy represents a common denominator that allows us to sum up all the processes of production and consumption by the myriad organisms in a biological community.

Lindeman also broke from standard procedure by representing the relationships in his study lake as a mathematical model. A series of equations described thermodynamic relationships and the efficiency of energy capture and transfer. Ironically, Lindeman's most important paper was rejected by the journal Ecology as being too theoretical and too quantitative. It was only after the intercession of G. Evelyn Hutchinson from Yale, with whom Lindeman had a postdoctoral fellowship after finishing his studies at Minnesota, that his mathematical model and energy analysis of Cedar Bog Lake was finally published. Unfortunately, Ray Lindeman died of liver failure before his article appeared. It has since become a landmark in ecological history.

In the years since Lindeman's work, the idea of taking a systemic view of a biological community together with its physical and inorganic environment has become standard in ecology. Energy flows and nutrient cycles are central to the way we understand the workings of ecological systems. Constructing quantitative models to describe, explain, and explore ecological processes has become routine. In this chapter we will investigate the ways energy and matter are used by living things, and the ways these flows create relationships in ecosystems.

Questions:

1. Use your measuring tool: what are the length and width of the lake, in meters. How big is it?

2. Zoom out and look at the area surrounding the lake. What kind of land use dominates the area? Might his study have been different in one of the other nearby lakes?

3. Can you see a major inlet or outlet on this lake? Why is that important for an experiment such as Lindeman’s?

4. In an intensive study of energy cycling, why is a small lake a good subject?

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Bohai Sea algae bloom p. 70

This sea (also known as Bohai Bay or Bohai Gulf) is a gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of northeastern China. It is approximately 823,000 km2, and its proximity to Beijing, the capital of China, make it one of the busiest seaways in the world. Tianjin is the largest and busiest port in North China. When it has enough water to reach the sea, the Huang He (Yellow River) empties into Bohai Bay. The Beijing/Tianjin population complex is home to at least 50 million people. Petroleum and natural gas deposits have been discovered in Bohai. Well drilling will put further pressure on water quality.

Because the Bay is nearly completely cut off from the ocean by peninsulas on both the north and south, circulation is restricted, and pollution tends to accumulate in the enclosed waters. In 2006, experts predicted that a failure to control pollution will cause the Bohai Sea to die within a decade. It is a frequent site of the phenomenon known as “toxic tides” when nutrients from sewage and other terrestrial runoff stimulate growth of algae and dinoflagellates. One of these toxic tides in 2004 contaminated more than 3,000 km2 of the Bay. The Xinhua News Agency reports that the sea often turns a dark red and gives it an acrid stench at Guanxi’s Silver Beach, a national tourist attraction. Local people say this sometimes occurs every few days. They blame the cleaning run-off from nearby shellfish processing plants among other pollution sources. Nevertheless, Chinese authorities assure consumers that seafood from the Bay is perfectly safe to eat. You can see the extent of algal growth in the green, cloudy water that fills most of the Bay.

See if you can find the large complex of salt works is visible at Huanghua, near Tianjin, where the Yellow River empties into the bay.

Questions:

1. What is the origin of the name “Yellow Sea”?

2. What features at the opening of Bohai Bay impede circulation into and out of the bay?

3. Why might the salt works contribute to pollution in the Bay?

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Chapter 4

Galapagos p. 75

This island group is famous as the site at which Charles Darwin collected evidence for evolution of species. Because the islands are so isolated, they were free of human inhabitants until relatively recently. Most of the animals never developed a fear of humans. It is a popular ecotourist destination today because of its biodiversity and historic scientific importance.

Questions:

1. Approximately how many islands can you see in this group?

2. What country claims the Galapagos?

3. If you zoom in on the northern end of Isla Isabela, the largest island, you'll see several round features. What are these?

4. How far is it from the Galapagos to the mainland of South America? Why is this important for Darwin’s studies?

Challenge question: Why are the features you examined in question 3 important for Darwin's studies?

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Great Barrier Reef p. 85

Corals are an outstanding example of symbiosis, in which a coral polyp (an animal) and an alga (which photosynthesizes) live together and benefit each other. Together, these partners build some of the largest structures created by any living organism. The Great Barrier Reef is the longest coral reef in the world. Coral reefs are renowned for the diversity, beauty, and the economic importance of the fish and other organisms that shelter or reproduce in the complex niches and crevices of a reef. More than 1,500 species of fish, shrimp, and other organisms find shelter and reproduce in the reef's crevices.

Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is the longest and largest area of corral reef in the world. It isn’t a single linear wall of corral, however, but rather a chain of individual reefs and islands. If you zoom out from the view shown by our place marker, you’ll see how many patches of reef make up this complex.

Australia has set aside about one-third of the reef complex as a marine protected area in which all extractive activities are banned. Overfishing and other destructive practices have been halted, but other problems still threaten the reef. Warm water has been causing bleaching (For reasons we don’t fully understand, when they’re stressed by warm water or other factors, the corals expel their algae symbionts. If the bleaching is too severe, the corals die). In recent years, bleaching incidents have become increasingly widespread and severe. In 2002, between 65 and 90 percent of the corals within the 284,000 km2 of the Great Barrier Reef showed signs of bleaching. Global warming can only make this situation worse. Another serious concern is that the increased CO2 concentrations are making ocean water more acidic, as CO2 combines with the water to produce the mildly acidic carbonic acid. Increasing acidity would interfere with the corals ability to create the calcium carbonate exoskeletons that create the reef. Some marine biologists warn that if current trends continue, all the coral could be dead within the next 50 years.

Questions:

1. What term do biologists use to describe this cooperative relationship between coral and algae?

2. What is the term for the relationship where one species benefits another is neither harmed nor hurt?

3. Is the reef a single linear structure or a chain of structures?

4. The cooperative relationship depends on clear, warm water that allows sunlight to reach the photosynthesizing algae. Zoom out until you can see Cairns, and then zoom in to the bay. What land uses contribute to murky water in the bay?

4. Many of the world's coral reefs are affected by sediment runoff like this. If you lived in Cairns, what steps might you take to reduce sediment runoff that might threaten the coral reefs?

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Welland Canal p. 95

When the fourth (and current) Welland Canal was constructed in 1932, it gave ocean-going cargo ships access to the upper Great Lakes, and made cities, such as Detroit, Chicago, and even remote Duluth, Minnesota, sea ports. Today, more than 40 million metric tons of cargo pass every year through the 42 km (27 mi) canal, rising 99.5 m (326.5 ft) in a series of eight locks between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. This has been an economic boon to inland cities, but also has been an ecological disaster. Ships dump ballast water collected in foreign ports as they take on cargo. In doing so, they have introduced dozens of alien, invasive species into North American inland waterways with devastating ecological consequences. Among the most notorious invasives are sea lampreys, zebra mussels, round gobies, spiny water fleas, and alewives. The most recent invader is a viral hemorrhagic fever specific to fish. This virus—which is something like an Ebola for fish—attacks the endothelial lining of blood vessels and causes massive hemorrhaging and sudden death. It is spreading rapidly throughout the Great Lakes, and we don’t yet know how great the damage to fish populations will be.

Questions:

1. Which two Great Lakes does this canal connect?

2. What famous waterfall does the canal bypass? (Hint: it’s about 16 km northeast of the city of Welland).

3. Why can invasive species pass from lake to lake now when they couldn’t before?

4. Just south of Port Colborne, you can see a large ship in the canal. Which way is it going? How do you know?

5. What city is at the Lake Ontario entrance into the canal?

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Chapter 5

Apo Island p. 99

As the opening case study for this chapter shows, this small island is the site of a pioneering marine preserve that not only has restored ocean fish populations and brought a new prosperity to the community, but also has served as a model for hundreds of other no-take fish sanctuaries in many countries.

Questions:

1. What country is this?

2. What is the name of the larger island to the west of Apo?

3. How big is Apo?

4. Is this island north or south of the equator?

5. Why is it valuable for a remote island like Apo to have a marine reserve?

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Serengeti Plain p. 102

Legendary for its vast herds of wildlife, this grassy steppe is one of the world’s natural treasures. We often think of forests as our richest biomes, but grasslands can support huge populations of migratory grass-eating animals, which can thrive on abundant grass but move easily to new pastures as seasons change or grass is consumed.

The Serengeti, together with the nearby the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, and the Maasai Mara Game Reserve across the border in Kenya, protect the greatest and most varied collection of terrestrial wildlife on earth, and one of the last great migratory systems still intact. During the rainy season between December and June, as many as two million wildebeests and zebras graze on the new growth of grass on these plains. When the rains stop in July the world’s largest mammal migration occurs as the animals move west toward Lake Victoria in search of new pastures.

Questions:

1. In what country is this pin located? (Hint: turn on the international borders and country names).

2. What country adjoins the Serengeti on the south?

3. Why do so many short tracks branch off from the roads in this area?

4. Approximately how far is it to Lake Victoria from this place marker?

5. What tribe of native people herd cattle on these plains?

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Great Barrier Reef, Australia p. 108

Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is the longest and largest area of corral reef in the world. The barrier reef isn’t a single linear wall of coral; rather it is a chain of smaller reefs and islands. If you zoom in on the place marker, you can see the texture of the reefs. If you zoom out from the view shown by our place marker, you’ll see how many patches of reef make up this complex.

Australia has set aside about one-third of the reef complex as a marine protected area in which all extractive activities are banned. Overfishing and other destructive practices have been halted, but other problems still threaten the reef. Warm water has been causing bleaching (For reasons we don’t fully understand, when they’re stressed by warm water or other factors, the corals expel their algae symbionts. If the bleaching is too severe, the corals die). In recent years, bleaching incidents have become increasingly widespread and severe. In 2002, between 65 and 90 percent of the corals within the 284,000 km2 of the Great Barrier Reef showed signs of bleaching. Global warming can only make this situation worse. Another serious concern is that the increased CO2 concentrations are making ocean water more acidic, which interferes with the corals ability to create the calcium carbonate exoskeletons that create the reef. Some marine biologists warn that if current trends continue, all the coral could be dead within the next 50 years.

Questions:

1. What term do biologists use to describe this cooperative relationship between coral and algae?

2. What is the term for the relationship where one species benefits another is neither harmed nor hurt?

3. Is the reef a single linear structure or a chain of structures?

4. Many of the world's coral reefs are affected by sediment runoff like this. If you lived in Cairns, what steps might you take to reduce sediment runoff that might threaten the coral reefs?

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Barrier Island p. 109

This is the south end of a barrier island that protects nearly the entire length of the Maryland coast on the Atlantic. Notice how the ocean side of the island is a narrow, straight beach, while the landward side is marshy and highly variable in width. You can see how the wetlands on the lagoon side of the island provide a rich nursery for wildlife. Immediately to the west of this end of this island is another that will be familiar to readers of Margaret Henry’s Misty of Chincoteague.

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Chapter 6

Grand Banks p. 117

The opening case study in this chapter describes declining fish populations of the Grand Banks. This view in Google Earth shows the general shape of the ocean floor, including the sharp drop off the edge of the Grand Banks.

Once site of one of the most abundant fisheries in the world, marine populations here have been depleted by destructive fishing methods. Especially destructive are the large trawlers that drag nets on the sea floor, destroying reproductive and feeding habitat and badly damaging the marine food web. The Grand Banks provided outstanding habitat for cod because of several factors: the shallow sea floor was good for the development of eggs and young, the Gulf Stream carried warm water and nutrients northward along the continental coast, and it was near the nutrient-rich arctic waters where cod migrated to feed and grow fat. Fishing fleets came from Spain, England, and other European countries to exploit the cod of this area. The Maritime Provinces of Canada prospered in the 19th century on the bounty of these fish. The Grand Banks cod fishery is now closed in an effort to prevent the complete loss of this fish population.

Questions:

1. What is the broad, dark blue ledge on which the Grand Banks sits?

2. Why were there once large populations of fish here?

3. Is the continental shelf wider here than elsewhere along the coast of North America?

4. This was a key fishing area for boats from both North American and Europe. How far would fishing boats from seaports such as Halifax, Nova Scotia, have to sail to reach this area of the Grand Banks marked by the place marker? How would boats have to come from Spain?

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Channel Islands, California p. 126

Lying a short distance off the coast of Southern California, the eight Channel Islands offer a natural laboratory to study evolution, population biology, and the effects of invasive species. This is the site of a classic study of island size effects noted in your text. The strong currents that sweep around these islands isolate them from the mainland. This isolation has allowed evolution of a number of endemic species (those found only in a particular spot and nowhere else). The rugged terrain of these volcanic islands also helps separate species and creates different habitats that foster biodiversity. Five of the islands Park (Anacapa, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, San Miguel, and Santa Barbara), together with surrounding marine preserves, are protected within the Channel Islands National Park.

The islands vary in size from tiny Santa Barbara, which has an area of only 2.63 km2 to Santa Cruz, which is 250 km2. Santa Cruz also has the highest mountain in the island chain, reaching roughly 750 m (2,500 ft) above sea level at the top of Devils Peak. Although the islands may appear dry and barren at first glance, they support a rich variety plants and animals including the Island Fox, the Channel Islands Spotted Skunk, Island Scrub Jay, Ashy Storm-petrel, Island Night Lizard, Channel Island Slender Salamander, Santa Catalina Island Rattlesnake, San Clemente Goat, San Clemente Loggerhead Shrike, a unique subspecies of Torrey Pine, and the Island Tree Mallow. The kelp forests surrounding the Channel Islands are some of the largest in the world, and harbor a rich diversity of marine life. A kelp forest monitoring program sponsored by the National Park Service has now accumulated 25 years (1982–2006) of data, which includes population dynamics of 69 taxa of algae, fish, and invertebrates

The Channel Islands offer a classic example of island biogeography. Jared Diamond’s research on bird populations (described in text) shows a balance between extinction and colonization rates based on island size and distance from the mainland. Small islands far from the mainland tend to have much smaller populations of birds and a much higher rate of extinction than those that are larger, nearer the mainland. Being a part of the linear chain of northern islands also makes migration easier and more successful than in the more scattered and isolated islands of the southern group. The island biogeography model assumes that islands are truly isolated and were never part of the nearby continent (for example, during periods of low sea level), so that colonization events are really rare. Neither of these is true for the Channel Islands, so many biogeographers have disputed the relevance of this site for the theory of island biogeography. Nonetheless, these islands remain an iconic example that is often referred to.

Questions:

1. Knowing what you do about island biogeography, which of the islands would you expect to have the smallest number of species (the least biodiversity)?

2. Which island would you expect to have the largest number of species?

3. The concept of island biogeography assumes a the low probability of new arrivals. Measure the distance across the channels. Rounding to the nearest 5 miles or so, about how far would a bird or mammal have to travel to colonize one island from another?

4. Which island has a caldera (an extinct volcano crater) at its east end?

5. What city of 10 million people is southeast of these islands? Why might that proximity matter in a species count?

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Chapter 7

Bangkok, Thailand p. 132

Bangkok is one of the world’s rapidly growing cities, with a population expanding in response to growing economic prosperity and migration from impoverished rural farming regions. This view shows the Royal Palace and Golden Temple, the seat of traditional religious and political power in the country. Without the cooperation of the King and Buddhist religious leaders, Mechai Viavaidya wouldn’t have been so successful in his family planning and AIDS awareness programs. Zoom out and move around the city until you can get a sense of its size and density of the city.

Questions:

1. Based on what you know from your readings and what you see in the images, why would Bangkok be a place that would have a bold and well-financed family planning program?

2. As you can see, Bangkok is a dense, large city. The city is also growing extremely rapidly. Based on your readings, why is it important to have family planning in this context?

3. Why might it be unusual to have a progressive family planning program in a rapidly developing nation?

4. Zoom out and move south east beyond the city’s edges. The landscape here is broken into small agricultural fields and ponds. How do these differ from agricultural landscapes in your state? What can kind of agricultural production might go on here?

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Palm Island, Dubai p. 136

The United Arab Emirates are among both the world’s richest countries on a per capita basis and the fastest growing. Dubai, in particular, has become a playground of the wealthy from around the world in recent years, as the country has encouraged trade and tourism. Among Dubai’s few natural resources are a sandy coastline and abundant sunshine, attributes that Europeans crave in winter. This small desert country is running out of desirable places to live, so it has created artificial islands shaped like palm trees. Each frond of the tree provides space for mansions, each of which has water access. These islands are truly one of the few human-made structures visible from space.

Questions:

1. Zoom out from the island slightly: describe the landscape away from the shoreline.

2. What do you suppose is the primary source of water for the green spaces near the shore?

3. Zoom in close to the “fronds” of the palm island. Is the island fully developed or in early stages of development? Would you like to buy a vacation home there? Why or why not? Would you rather take a vacation in the golf-course villas, or along the green-colored lagoons?

4. Zoom out to see the area surrounding this city. Also zoom west to the second palm island. What resources are involved in building a city as rapidly as this one is being built?

5. About 4 miles northeast of the placemarker is another set of islands. What is their shape designed to resemble?

6. What is the highest altitude at which you can still see the islands? What else can you identify at this altitude?

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Dharavi, Mumbai p. 136

In general, Mumbai (formerly Bombay) is considered a modern, planned city. British colonial officials created this major city out of several small fishing villages and gave it a rational, modern plan. It has good transportation corridors and orderly housing areas with verdant parks for middle class residents. The wealth created by commerce has attracted millions of poor people from the countryside, however, and unused open spaces have often been turned into shanty towns and other unplanned, chaotic housing areas for the poor.

With more than 45,000 people per hectare, the Dharavi slum in Mumbai is one of the most densely crowded shanty towns in the world (imagine 45,000 people living on a football field). City planners would like to eliminate this slum and redevelop this land, but impoverished residents have few other choices for where they can live.

If you zoom out in this Google Earth view, you can easily distinguish slum areas (gray areas with tightly packed, low buildings) from wealthier housing areas (large apartment buildings regularly spaced with abundant green around them). Notice how these areas are intermixed.

Questions:

1. What country is this?

2. Why are so few streets visible in Dharavi?

3. How does the density of Dharavi (45,000 people/hectare) compare to the density where you live? (One hectare is about 2.54 acres.)

4. How do the shanty towns in Mumbai compare to those in Rio de Janeiro?

5. Dharavi is right in the heart of Mumbai. Why might that be beneficial for the residents of the shantytown?

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Chapter 8

Cancer Alley p. 165

There are at least 26 chemical factories and tank farms along the Mississippi River between Baton Rouge and New Orleans. Many residents blame myriad health problems on air and water pollution from these facilities. They call this “cancer alley” because of the high incidence of cancer among residents and workers. These facilities produce the plastics you use every day, including everything from plastic bags to toys to PVC pipes used in plumbing and vinyl used in siding houses.

Questions:

1. Zoom in to the factory complex next to the place marker. What features can you identify in the complex?

2. In the left side of your GoogleEarth window, find the Layers list. (If it is not visible, you may need to turn it on: find the View menu > Layers.) In the list of layers, find the "Geographic Features" group, and make sure the "USA Features" is checked ON. Now pan north of the original place marker location. Move around to see how many names of oil and gas fields you can find in the area around this factory. Hint: if you zoom out beyond an "eye altitude" of about 22,000 feet, the names will disappear. How many gas and oil fields can you find in this area?

3. Zoom to an eye altitude of about 18,000 feet. Now pan slowly down the river (starting a south-east direction). How many concentrations of oil tanks and petro-chemical plants can you find between this site and the city of New Orleans?

4. What major natural hazard periodically threatens industrial facilities in this region?

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Texas City p. 165

Questions:

1. What are the many white circles in the image?

3. Zoom out until you can see the position of Texas City in relation to the Gulf of Mexico. What kind of natural weather event frequently threatens Gulf Coast communities?

4. How exposed is Texas City to these events? How easy would it be for residents to evacuate in an emergency?

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Norilsk nickel smelter, Russia p. 166

Norilsk has the largest heavy metal mining complex in the world and is one of the world's most polluted places. Norilsk was founded in 1935 as a slave labor camp and it remains a closed city from which all foreigners (and observers) are excluded. The city still has much of the bleak, grimy character of its pioneer days. Every year the mines and smelters produce more than 400,000 metric tons of copper, 250,000 tons of nickel, 95 tons of palladium, and 22 tons of platinum. In this process, 2,000 tons of dust, ash, and toxic metals including cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, arsenic, selenium and zinc are dispersed into the city air. Other air pollutants in the city include Strontium-90, Caesium-137, sulfur dioxide, particulates, phenols and hydrogen sulfide. Snow turns black as soon as it falls in Norilsk, and the air tastes bitter and metallic. Acids from sulfur and nitrogen oxides eat away paint. Everything is coated with soot and ash. Factory workers life expectancy is 10 years below the Russian average (which is already one of the lowest in the industrialized world). Respiratory diseases are extremely high. Children living in Norilsk are twice as likely to become ill as elsewhere in Russia. High rates of miscarriage and birth defects as well as infertility have been reported. Many residents would like to leave Norilsk, but having been attracted there by relatively high wages, they are now to sick to move elsewhere.

This view shows the main factory complex. Note the smokestack shadows, as well as the uniform color of the landscape. Smelting (heating ore to extract minerals) produces large amounts of acidic air emissions that can damage or destroy vegetation downwind of a smelter. If you zoom out and move northeast and from this place marker, you can see that there is more than one smelter complex in the area. Russia produces about 20 percent of all the heavy metals in world commerce. We all benefit from this dirty industry. Without copper, nickel, platinum, palladium, gold, and other metals, your computer, cell phone, TV, automobile, and all the other machines on which modern life depends wouldn’t be possible.

Questions:

1. Zoom out to see the location of the factory and the workers' housing. Also move south to find the place marker marked with a question mark. What is done at this place mark?

2. Return to the original place mark. Find the workers' housing, and zoom in close enough to see the buildings. Describe the housing you see. In what ways does it look like a healthy or unhealthy place for workers to live?

3. Note that the surrounding landscape is made up of tundra pockmarked with wetlands, probably a saturated landscape. Why would this be a hard place to contain contaminated runoff from processing?

4. Zoom out to get a sense of whether Norilsk is isolated from large population centers. Why might it be difficult to regulate pollutants in a remote location?

5. Do those of us who use the metals produced in Norilsk have any moral responsibility for the conditions under which the workers and their families live?

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Melvin Iowa, Corn Belt landscape p. 169

Exposure to farm chemicals is an important health risk in many areas. Iowa is at the center of the American corn belt, where farming dominates the economy and the lifestyle of farming families and communities. Nitrites from fertilizers occur in drinking water supplies for many farms and small towns to present a risk to small children. Many pesticides also contaminate ground water and local streams. Atrazine, for example, which is widely used to control weeds in corn, can be found in water throughout this area. Evidence in lab animals suggests that this herbicide can disrupt endocrine functions and developmental processes at very low levels. Farmers who use conventional pesticides and herbicides have significantly higher rates of cancer than those who don’t work with these chemicals.

Questions:

1. The landscape here was surveyed in 1-square mile sections. Many farms consisted of one or more quarter sections (1/2 mile x 1/2 mile), although many farms have been consolidated and combined in recent years. Using your measuring tool, figure out how many houses there are per square mile in this area.

2. Zoom out and get a sense of how much area is covered by this settlement pattern, with widely scattered houses every half mile or so in all directions. Why would farm chemicals such as Atrazine be a significant public health hazard in this area?

3. Move around this region of Iowa; also look at parts of southern Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, and other farm-belt states. How are the landscapes in these areas similar to or different from those where you live?

4. If exposure to farm chemicals is an important and wide-spread health risk for rural families, how would you recommend reducing the problem?

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Chapter 9

Cerrado, Brazil p. 179

These fields near Campo Grande, capital of Mato Grosso do Sul province are probably growing soy beans. This is the heart of the Cerrado, or savanna, which has become the world’s leading producer of soy. The Cerrado is roughly the same size as the American Midwest, and while it generally has a warmer climate, the topography and rainfall are similar in the two areas. As the opening case study for this chapter points out, Brazil now produces about 50 million metric tons of soy annually and has passed the United States not only in soy production but also in beef, corn (maize), oranges, sugar, and coffee. This is good for world food supply, but it probably threatens much of the rich biodiversity of the Cerrado.

Questions:

1. How much evidence can you see in this view of natural vegetation?

2. What other countries lie directly to the west of the Cerrado?

3. In which direction is Curitiba, the city discussed in chapter 22?

4. Use the Search function in the left pane of GoogleEarth to search for “Santarem, Brazil,” which is a deep-water port (which can handle ocean-going ships) on the Amazon River. The multinational commodity trading corporation Cargill has built a port at Santarem on the Amazon to load soybeans onto ocean-going cargo ships. This terminal makes shipping cheaper, makes soy farming much more profitable, and thus encourages clearing of the Amazon basin and the Cerrado. What is the white fishbone-shapped pattern about 160 km (100 mi) south of Santarem?

5. You can zoom in to Cargill’s soy terminal by clicking on the placemarker. Note the long conveyor arm that delivers soybeans from the warehouse to the ship dock. If you zoom out from this point to see the Atlantic Ocean, how far is Santarem from the ocean? That is, how far can ocean-going ships penetrate the continent to reach this facility?

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Feedlot p. 185

This is one of many feedlots in this part of Kansas, where steers (young male calves, neutered for faster body growth and cooperative behavior) are brought for fattening on corn. Steers may be trucked to this feedlot from farms and ranches as far away as North Dakota or Montana. The crop circles show that the landscape around this feedlot is used for producing irrigated corn and other commodities. Unless you are a vegetarian or eat only free-range meat, the meat you eat comes from a facility like this one or larger.

Questions:

1. Zoom in until you can make out the individual lots in the feedlot. What are the black dots in the lots?

2. Why are they lined up along the outer edges of many of the pens?

3. Feeding cattle on corn requires that the animals be fed a regular diet of antibiotics, because corn is richer than a cow's natural grass diet and tends to ferment in the animal's stomach. One of the health concerns involved in this kind of operation is that the dried manure contains antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which may then become windborne in hot, dusty, summer conditions. Is this an important risk factor in this location?

4. Zoom out and search around the area. Can you find other, similar feedlots in this neighborhood?

5. Each animal in a feedlot consumes about 88 liters (40 gal) of water each day. As you look around the landscape of this area of Kansas, what sources of water do you see? Where do you suppose the water comes from for animals and for irrigation in this area?

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Fish farm, China p. 187

As ocean harvests of seafood decline because of overfishing and destructive harvest techniques, growing fish in ponds and net pens and cages has become an increasing source of food for human consumption. Currently, about half of all seafood consumed directly by humans comes from aquaculture operations. This large aquaculture facility in South China is probably growing fish for local consumption. An even larger group of pens can be seen in the next bay to the south.

Growing fish in high concentrations requires use of pesticides and antibiotics to keep diseases and parasites under control. The feces and uneaten food that drain from the pens can pollute local waters and cause severe eutrophication in confined bays or small lakes. Fish (often exotic species or genetically engineered varieties) can also escape and invade local populations.

Questions:

1. In what major city is this farm located?

2. Why do you think such a large aquaculture facility would be located here?

3. Is this salt or fresh water?

4. Why is the fish farm located here rather than out in the open ocean?

5. What are some of the environmental consequences of fish farming, according to your readings?

6. Extra credit: A large tourist facility (which was still under construction at the time of writing) is shown on Lantau Island about 13 km NW from the fish farm. What is this place?

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Irrigation circles p. 195

These circles are the dominant pattern of Midwestern agriculture, especially in regions growing corn. They are created by center-pivot irrigation systems in which a long line of sprinklers circles around a well or other water source.

Questions:

1. Why is this type of irrigation advantageous?

2. Zoom out to an eye altitude of 50 or 60 miles. Would you say that most crops in this area are irrigated or farmed without irrigation?

3. Irrigation on this scale became possible with the invention of efficient pumps. Pumps made possible the use of nearly-free of groundwater or river water, and abundant, cheap energy to run the pumps. Which of these resources is likely to be most limiting for farmers in years to come? Why?

4. If ethanol increases demand for corn, and raises the price paid to farmers for corn, what changes would you expect in this landscape or in the price of water and energy?

5. How big is each circle?

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Contour plowing p. 201

This non-glaciated region of Minnesota has steep, easily-eroded bluffs. Planting crops in alternating strips along the contour of the slope helps hold back the soil. It also makes attractive patterns from the air. If you explore around this area, you’ll see many examples of conservation tillage.

Questions:

1. Why are some fields planted in regular square shape while others have complex patterns of different colored strips?

2. Approximately how wide are the strips?

3. What are the rough-textured, dark green areas?

4. What large river is directly north of these fields?

5. According to your readings, why is contour plowing important?

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Chapter 10

Almond orchard p. 208

The $1.6 billion almond crop is totally dependent on rented honeybee colonies to pollinate flowers and produce fruit. Unfortunately, honeybees are disappearing rapidly. Some beekeepers report that up to 70 percent of their bees have succumbed to disease or simply abandoned their hives. A number of causes have been suggested for this “colony collapse disorder,” including excessive pesticide use, parasitic mites, fungal diseases, even excessive cell phone use. No one knows exactly what is happening, but billions of dollars in agricultural production is threatened.

The town of Sanger, just to the east of this place marker, calls itself the “almond blossom capital” of California and is the home of the Almond Growers Exchange.

Questions:

1. What are the linear rows of dark dots in this view?

2. What is the big dark, linear structure running along the southern border of this orchard?

3. What evidence do you see that might suggest high pesticide use in this area?

4. What do we call this area of California, and why is it important?

5 How much pesticides are used in California every year (hint: do a search for something like “total pesticide use California”).

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Fish farm, Chile p. 210

This location is another example of excess pesticide use. As ocean harvests of seafood decline because of overfishing and destructive harvest techniques, growing fish in ponds and net pens and cages has become an increasing source of food for human consumption. Currently, about half of all seafood consumed directly by humans comes from aquaculture operations. Chile is a major source of salmon and trout for the North American market. These offshore pens near Puerto Montt, Chile are probably growing salmon. Growing fish in high concentrations requires use of pesticides and antibiotics to keep diseases and parasites under control. The feces and uneaten food that drain from the pens can pollute local waters and cause severe eutrophication in confined bays or small lakes. Fish (often exotic species or genetically engineered varieties) can also escape and invade local populations.

Questions:

1. What is the white streak on the east side of the lower set of pens in this view?

2. How many other sets of fish pens can you find around this small island?

3. Is this salt or fresh water?

4. Why is the fish farm located here rather than out in the open ocean?

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Shrimp ponds, Thailand p. 210

One of the most rapidly growing forms of aquaculture is raising shrimp in artificial ponds. Shrimp are highly prized in many cultures. They can be raised in captivity quickly and easily. The product brings high prices and is easily frozen and shipped all over the world. Shrimp, which once was a rare and expensive delicacy, has become the most popular seafood in America. Until recently, most shrimp were caught in the open ocean, but today most shrimp are raised in artificial ponds in tropical coastal areas where seawater is available and wastes can be pumped into the ocean. In 2003, more than 1.8 million metric tons of shrimp were raised in captivity. Thailand was the world’s largest producer (about 25% of the total) and the U.S. was the world’s largest consumer (about half of all shrimp consumed in the world).

This causes a number of environmental problems. Construction of these ponds destroys valuable coastal habitat—particularly mangrove forests that once protected coastlines and acted as a nursery for a wide variety of sea life. In the densely crowed ponds, diseases spread quickly, so that operators need to use high levels of pesticides and antibiotics to keep the shrimp healthy. Wastewater from the ponds—rich in uneaten food, feces, dead animals, antibiotics, and cleansing agents—contaminates near coastal waters and results in eutrophication. Few farmers successfully complete the full life-cycle of the shrimp in captivity. Instead, shrimp larvae are harvested from the wild—thus depleting native stocks and other species caught along with the shrimp—and introduced into the ponds. Shrimp are carnivorous, so wild fish are caught and processed into fishmeal for shrimp food. By some estimates, one-third of all wild-caught fish now go into fishmeal for various types of aquaculture. This is a tremendous drain on wild fish populations.

Questions:

1. In this view of the Thai coast, how much of the coastline is devoted to shrimp ponds?

2. Why do some ponds appear green?

3. The narrow forested strip along the coastline is mainly mangroves. Mangroves are an important nursery for fish and shrimp and bird life. If shrimp ponds are replacing mangroves, how might they affect the lives of people in these coastal villages?

4. If you were a resident of Thailand and had an opportunity to get rich quick raising shrimp even if you knew that after a few years the ponds would be too contaminated to grow anything and would have to be abandoned, would you do it?

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Rancagua, Chile: source of flowers and table grapes p. 216.

Many of the fresh fruits and flowers Americans buy in the supermarket originate in places like Rancagua, Chile. Global use of pesticides is a largely-unmonitored phenomenon. One of the relatively new and growing applications is in aquaculture. This type of production links American consumers to remote production areas around the globe. Many of the fresh fruits and flowers Americans buy in the supermarket originate in places like Rancagua, Chile. Zoom in to see the concentrations of agricultural fields around the city. Zoom out to see the city's position in a valley on the western slopes of the Andes.

Questions:

1. Describe several factors that make Rancagua and California's Central Valley (site of the almond orchard in another place mark for this chapter) similar.

2. Zoom out to see Chile's location in South America. List Chile's neighboring countries.

3. One difference between California and Rancagua is that the United States has much stricter rules and enforcement in terms of pesticide use. Chile's imports of agricultural pesticides have mushroomed from US$4 million in 1976 to over $130 million in 2005. By contrast, the U.S. uses about $2.2 billion worth of pesticides annually. In the 1990s, pesticides were associated with birth defects and neurological damage in agricultural workers. Should American consumers of flowers and fruit worry about farm workers in Rancagua? Why or why not?

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Chapter 11

Kapiti Island p. 238

Having been isolated from other land masses for millions of years, New Zealand evolved a unique flora and fauna of endemic species. With no mammals and few predators, the islands had many species of flightless birds and other species that lacked the defenses developed by their relatives in other places. When Polynesian people reached these islands about 1,000 years ago, they introduced rats and began a process of ecological change that drove many species into extinction. European colonists brought thousands of more invasive species of both plants and animals that now overrun the landscape. Protecting native species has become a very difficult job.

In a few places—mostly on small, off-shore islands—New Zealand has eliminated most or all of the exotic, invasive species that threaten indigenous flora and fauna. One of these predator-free preserves is Kapiti Island. Using traps, poison, and professional hunters, all the feral pigs, goats, cats, rats, dogs, possums, ferrets and other predators were eliminated. Ground-dwelling birds, such as the native Kiwi, were reintroduced. Native plant species that hadn’t been seen for years resprouted from seeds stored in the ground.

Questions:

1. How big is the island?

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Welland Canal p. 236

Questions:

1. Which two Great Lakes does this canal connect?

2. What famous waterfall does the canal bypass? (Hint: it’s about 16 km northeast of the city of Welland).

3. Why can invasive species pass from lake to lake now when they couldn’t before?

4. Just south of Port Colborne, you can see a large ship in the canal. Which way is it going? How do you know?

5. What city is at the Lake Ontario entrance into the canal?

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Cedar Creek Natural History Area p. 229

This field laboratory north of the twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, MN is the site of several famous ecological experiments concerning biodiversity and resilience to environmental changes, such as global warming. Since 1997, Peter Reich and his colleagues have been carrying out free air carbon enrichment (FACE) experiments (see Exploring Science box in this chapter).

The square grid directly below the marker is the biodiversity experiment carried out by ecologist David Tilman and his coworkers. Each of the small squares in this grid contains a randomly-assigned set of 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 native prairie species. At the end of the growing season samples of above-ground and below-ground biomass are collected from each plot, cleaned, dried, and weighed to study the effect of species biodiversity on biomass production under relatively natural field conditions. The conclusion of this experiment is that mixtures of native plants produce significantly more biomass than do monocrops of domestic plants under the same conditions.

To the East you can see five faint circles surrounded by a service road. These circles are the carbon enrichment studies. The thin poles from which CO2 is emitted (see photo in boxed reading in text) are difficult to see at this resolution level. Sets of different species are also tested to determine their growth under elevated CO2 levels. Similar to Tilman’s work, Reich finds that mixtures of species produce more biomass than do single species. While most plants grow better under elevated CO2 levels, the nutritional quality of their biomass often declines. Furthermore, for all species except legumes, nitrogen quickly becomes limiting under this faster growth.

Questions:

1. What kind of land cover do you see around this facility?

2. What’s the diameter of one of the FACE circles?

3. How much is seed weight enhanced in this experiment? (see discussion in text)

4. What is the benefit of doing these experiments in the open air in an abandoned farm field?

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Chapter 12

Great Bear Rainforest p. 253

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Amazonian deforestation p. 257

Roads provide access for land migrants. Even at very high altitude, you can see the fishbone pattern where deforested patches line lateral roads that branch off from main highways. There have been many clashes between native people, farmers, and ranchers over who owns land in this turbulent and chaotic frontier region. The Landless Workers Movement reports that between 19985 and 2000 more than 1,237 rural workers were killed in clashes with loggers and ranchers. In 2005, Sister Dorothy Stang, an American nun who had been working on development for the rural poor, was murdered. Sister Dorothy who had been trying to prevent attacks on settlements, frequently reported human rights abuses, and she was teaching locals how to live in the forest sustainably. She was assassinated by pistoleiros (gunmen) hired by a rancher near Anapu, about 350 km east of the place marker.

Questions:

1. What direction is the major highway running in this area?

2. Roughly how far apart are the “fishbone” lateral roads branching off the main highway? About how long are these roads?

3. Based on the sizes of the cleared patches off the roads, would you say that large or small landholders have made these clearings?

4. Based on what you see in these images, and on images on p. 257, explain how deforestation proceeds after a road is cut through the forest.

5. What is the huge river that runs east-west about 180 km north of the place marker?

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Clear-cuts, Washington state p. 260

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Yellowstone National Park p. 269

Established in 1872, Yellowstone is considered the world’s first truly national park. Actually, it was preceded by the Hot Springs Reservation in Arkansas (1832) and Yosemite Valley in California (1864), but these areas were managed by state governments until the National Park Service was established in 1916. Yellowstone remains one of the most popular units of the U.S. National Park system and has about 3 million visitors every year. With more than 2.2 million acres (about 900,000 ha), the park is larger than Rhode Island and Delaware combined. The place marker is just north of the Old Faithful Geyser Basin, undoubtedly the most popular tourist attraction in the park.

Questions:

1. What evidence can you see in this view of facilities to accommodate the millions of tourists who visit this area every year?

2. How does the design of Yellowstone differ from the biosphere reserves designated under the Man and Biosphere program described in your textbook?

3. About 20 km east of Old Faithful is a very large lake. What is its name? What is the surface elevation of this lake? (Remember you need to have the “terrain” layer turned on to see elevations for your mouse pointer.)

4. For extra credit, how was this lake formed?

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Great Barrier Reef p. 271

The Great Barrier Reef is the longest coral reef complex in the world. Coral reefs are renowned for the diversity, beauty, and economic importance of the fish and other organisms that shelter or reproduce in the complex niches and crevices of a reef. Because of the region’s biological and economic importance, the Great Barrier Reef is a protected reserve. In fact, the reef and portions of the surrounding ocean make up the largest marine protected area in the world.

This huge reef system is built by living coral. Corals live in a cooperative arrangement, in which a coral polyp (an animal) and an alga (which photosynthesizes) live together and benefit each other. Countless fish, shrimp, and other organisms find shelter and reproduce in the reef's crevices.

Questions:

1. Note that the reef is composed of many smaller shallow areas and islands. Approximately how wide is the reef complex near the place marker?

2. If you turn on the “populated places” layer, you can see the names of the Australian states and cities near the reef. Which state has the reef along its coastline?

3. Note that you can see the approximate shape of the ocean floor when you are zoomed out. South of about Brisbane, the reef complex disappears. Why is this?

4. What do you suppose are some of the economic benefits of protecting this reef complex?

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Chapter 13

Mississippi delta and Louisiana coastal wetlands p. 278

If you follow the river north to the area around Barataria Bay, you can see some of the network of canals cut for oil and gas drilling. Continue a little farther along the curves and bends of the river, and you’ll see how New Orleans is perched between the Mississippi and Lake Ponchar train. If you turn on the borders layer when you’re looking at the coastline, you can see an outline of where the marshes used to be.

Questions:

1. We’ve known for years that New Orleans is below sea level and that destruction of the coastal wetlands exposes the city to storm surges. What are some reasons we haven’t done something about it?

2. According to the case study on p. 278, what are some strategies for restoring the wetlands?

3. Why doesn’t the sediment now carried by the river replenish the marshes?

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Nonsuch Island, Bermuda p. 282

Nonsuch Island is a fragment of undeveloped island in the archipelago of small, densely occupied islands that make up Bermuda. As your textbook notes, this island is the site of an important restoration project for the Bermuda cahow, a seabird that breeds only on these isolated islands. Restoring populations of a nearly-extinct species takes huge effort. The slow but clear success of the cahow restoration provides an important demonstration that restoration efforts can be very worthwhile.

Questions:

1. Look at the density of buildings on the neighboring islands. How does the density of buildings compare to where you live?

2. Zoom out so that you can see Bermuda's remote position in the Atlantic. Explain how this location makes the islands important for breeding seabirds.

3. Why does Nonsuch’s relation to St. George’s Island make it difficult to control invasive species?

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Kissimmee River channelization p. 294

To the NW of this place marker, you can see the meanders where the Kissimmee River winds through natural wetlands. To the SE, you can see the start of channelization that drains the land and speeds water to Lake Okeechobee. As you follow this drainage ditch to the SE, you can see the original, convoluted channel still in place. This channelization of the Kissimmee is only part of more than 1,600 km of canals, 1,000 km of levees and 200 water control structures built in Florida by the Army Corps of Engineers to intercept normal water flow, drain farmlands, and divert flood water away from cities.

Questions:

1. Why is the natural river more effective at retaining water than the artificial ditch?

2. What evidence can you see that would make restoring the Kissimmee difficult and expensive?

3. Just downstream from our place marker is an oddly-shaped structure that looks like an electrical connection. What do you think it is?

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Prairie potholes p. 295

Once, millions of small, shallow ponds dotted the prairies of North America. Sometimes called the “duck factory,” this region’s wetlands produced more than half of all migratory waterfowl that followed the Mississippi flyway. At least half of all the once-existing potholes have been drained, filled and converted to agriculture. If you look around this area of relatively undisturbed prairie in North Dakota and adjacent regions of Manitoba, you’ll see numerous small lakes and few roads.

Questions:

1. If you turn on the “borders” layer, you can see a line running east-west just north of the place maker, at about 49 degrees N. What is this line?

2. Why is this such a productive area for ducks?

3. Why is it relatively easy to restore or recreate potholes?

4. Why do you suppose this area wasn’t farmed already?

5. Why is it that many more potholes have been created than marshes, swamps, wet meadows, or other wetland types?

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Arcata, California, p. 296

Arcata saved millions of dollars by constructing a wetland for wastewater treatment instead of building a conventional water treatment plant. This water treatment wetland has been extremely successful and has provided a refuge for wildlife and space for recreation. Read more about this project in the opening case study for this chapter. Zoom in/out and move north/south to see how Arcata is situated at the head of a shallow, enclosed tidal bay.

Questions:

1. Arcata was forced to be creative about its water treatment plant in part because of the estuary on which it sits. Look carefully at the bay next to Arcata. What characteristics make it especially susceptible to eutrophication from poorly-treated urban wastewater?

2. Arcata is a relatively small, remote community. How is wastewater treatment different in such a situation, compared to in a larger metropolitan area?

3. Zoom out and move north and south along the California coast. Do you see other cities in similar situations to Arcata’s? Does this help explain why Arcata was forced to be innovative in its waste treatment solutions?

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Chapter 14

Beartrack Mine p. 303

As the opening case study for this chapter describes, the Beartrack Mine was the largest single source of gold in Idaho during its short life of active operation (1995-2000). It is a cyanide heap-leach mine, in which low grade ore is piled in a huge heap and sprayed with a cyanide solution that dissolves the gold and leaches it away from the ore. Compare this satellite view with the low-altitude photograph at the chapter opener.

2. How much rock was in the heap-leach ore pile? (see description in book)

3. Can you see the second pit from which ore was removed in either image?

4. What are the irregular-shaped gray green spaces in the forest about 1 km southeast of the ore pile?

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Mountaintop removal p. 312

This is a type of surface (or strip) mining in which the top of a mountain or ridge is scraped off by large earth moving equipment to expose horizontal coal seams that can be beneath as much as 100 m of “overburden.” Often that unwanted rock and soil is simply pushed down slope into adjacent valleys burying streams, farms, forests, cemeteries, and other important sites.

If you zoom in on this site, you can see the heavy earth moving equipment as well as the headwall where rock is being cut away to expose the coal. If you zoom out, you can follow the scar made by mining for many kilometers.

There are many larger mines elsewhere in West Virginia and nearby states, but most are too low resolution in Google Earth (at the time of this writing) to be very visible.

Questions:

1. Why is the scar so irregular in shape?

2. Roughly, how long is the scar left by the mining?

3. Where is this mine located?

4. What mountain range is this part of?

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Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository p. 317

The United States has never had a permanent storage site for the vast amounts of highly radioactive waste generated by our nuclear power plants. A site was finally designated for the national storage site in 2002 at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. This place mark shows the entrance to the underground repository at Yucca Mountain. If you zoom out, you can see the many roads and test drilling sites that surround the repository entrance. Also note another entrance into the mountain about 2.6 km southeast of the place marker. For further detail on the structure of the storage site see the section on toxic and hazardous waste, Chapter 21.

While a majority of Congress voted in favor of the Yucca Mountain site, representatives from Nevada remain reluctant to accept waste from the rest of the country. Others are worried about the risks involved with shipping this dangerous material thousands of miles across the country. On the other hand, most waste is currently stored in more than 130 temporary facilities around the country. These temporary facilities are unlikely to remain a secure management system for the thousands of years this waste will remain hazardous. If we are to have nuclear-produced electricity, we need a secure place to store this material. What do you think we should do with this waste?

Questions:

1. Describe the landscape around Yucca Mountain. How does the location make the site suitable for storing hazardous waste? What are the chief concerns associated with this site? (see p. 317)

2. Move approximately 43 km northeast, to 37 degrees 6 min N, 116 degrees, 2 min W. What are the circular features on the ground in this area?

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Mount St. Helens p. 318

When this volcano erupted on May 18, 1980, it was the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the recorded history of the United States. Fifty-seven people were killed; and 250 homes, 46 bridges, 25 km (of railroad track and about 300 km of highway were destroyed. The eruption caused a massive debris avalanche rolled down the mountain’s slopes. Before the eruption, the mountain was a smoothly symmetrical peak rising to more than 2,950 m (about 9,677 ft) above sea level. Spirit Lake at the foot of the mountain’s west side was a much beloved vacation and fishing spot.

The eruption blew out the west side of the mountain lowering the summit by about 400 m and depositing nearly 1 km3 of dust, ash and volcanic rock on the surrounding land. You can see the horseshoe-shaped crater and a new central cone forming as lava and ash continues to emerge from the volcano. The catastrophic blast that ruptured the wall of the mountain created hurricane-force winds that flattened thousands of ha of forest. Ash spread over millions of ha of seven western states. Fortunately, the eruption was preceded by numerous earthquakes and a measurable bulge that developed on the mountain’s flank. This gave most local residents ample warning to evacuate the area.

Try flying around the mountain using the compass rose in the upper right corner of your screen to get a bird’s eye view of the post-eruption shape of the volcano.

Questions:

1. What is the white material inside the volcano’s crater?

2. How can snow persist on top of molten lava?

3. Why was the direction of the eruption and ash fall fortunate for Portland?

4. What evidence can you see of ash and mud flows from the mountain?

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Chapter 15

Vostok Station, Antarctica p. 332

The Russian Vostok Antarctic station, located at 78 degrees S, 106 degrees E, is the site that produced the longest ice core to date. Ice cores contain ice from thousands of years ago, as well as carbon dioxide and methane trapped in gas bubbles. By examining the subtle differences in the weight of oxygen and hydrogen atoms in ancient ice, climatologists can find clues to ancient climate conditions--such as how warm and cold the earth's atmosphere was. The Vostok core is the longest record to date, reaching 3,623 km long (over 3 km!) and 420,000 years.

Imagery in this part of the world may be poor when viewed close up. Zoom out to see Vostok's location in Antarctica. This is the most remote and coldest permanently-staffed station in Antarctica.

Questions:

1. Look up the Vostok Antarctic Station online, and find out its elevation.

2. How does the station's elevation compare to that where you live?

3. Why was it useful to drill at this elevation?

4. What is the latitude at Vostok?

5. What is the lowest latitude (closest to the equator, smallest number) on the continent?

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Mt. Kilimanjaro p. 336

At 5,895 m (19,340 ft), Mt. Kilimanjaro is one of the few tropical mountains in the world to have glaciers on its summit. The view of this snow-caped mountain from the warm, arid plains of central Africa is a world-renown sight. Unfortunately, Mt. Kilimanjaro, like alpine regions nearly everywhere in the world, is losing its famous snows. Since 1915, the mountain has lost 85 percent of its ice cap. If global warming continues, all the ice and permanent snows on the mountain will be gone by 2020.

Note that this site may be easiest to view with the “terrain” layer turned on, to show topography.

Questions:

1. What is the latitude of the mountain top?

2. What is the small depression on the mountain top within which the marker is placed?

3. As you fly around the mountain, look at the surrounding countryside. Do you see any other mountain ranges?

4. In what country is the mountain located?

5. If you scan down the mountain sides, you will see river channels running down toward the plains below. What might be the effect on surrounding farm lands when the snows of Kilimanjaro are permanently gone?

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Grinnell glacier, Montana p. 337

This location is easiest to view if you have the “terrain” layer turned on, to show elevations. Also refer to figure 15.18 to answer the questions below. As your textbook reports, when Glacier National Park was created in 1910, it contained 140 recognized glaciers. Now only 30 greatly shrunken glaciers remain in the park, and those are melting rapidly. If current trends continue, there will be no glaciers in the park by 2030.

One of the most frequently visited glaciers is Grinnell Glacier, named after George Bird Grinnell, who founded the Audubon Society and also was instrumental in exploring and preserving Glacier Park. Compare the historic and current photos of this glacier in fig. 15.18 with this satellite image. Try flying around the mountain to get a view of nearby peaks and valleys.

Note that this site may be easiest to view with the “terrain” layer turned on, to show topography.

Questions:

1. The 1914 photo in fig. 15.18 shows the glacier reaching as far as the pond that is in the foreground in the default view for this place marker. How long is the ice sheet now, compared to its length in 1914?

2. What is the smooth gray area dotted with white to the North of the glacier’s snout?

3. Why is the small heart-shaped lake in the valley below the glacier a turquoise color?

4. What do you call a horseshoe or bowl-shaped valley with straight walls such as the one formed by the Grinnell Glacier?

5. Move along the ridge, and you will see many rounded, vertical walls like that at the top of the Grinnell Glacier. Roughly how many of these contain snow or ice?

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Tuvalu p. 339 (see also chapter 2)

The islands of Tuvalu may be the first to be abandoned due to global warming. These islands are atolls, made of coral that once ringed islands. The effects of global warming could be both an ecological and human disaster in small island nations, such as this.

Questions:

1. Describe the shape of an atoll.

2. Zoom in to the island where Fongafale is: about what proportion of this island is high and dry enough to support vegetation (visible as green areas)--almost none, about half, or almost all? Zoom in to the other islands: do any of the islands seem to have a high proportion of vegetated (green) areas?

3. Zoom in close to the town of Fongafale. What is the long, straight gray strip in that town? Can you find any place else on this island or the others that could hold a features like this?

4. What would happen to the town if the dark lagoon next to the airstrip were to rise a meter or so and flood the airstrip?

6. If people and goods had to come and go by sea, instead of by air, what are two or three nearby population centers that people could go to or trade with?

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Cedar Creek Natural History Area p. 340

This field laboratory north of the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, MN is the site of several famous ecological experiments concerning biodiversity and resilience to environmental changes, such as global warming. Since 1997, Peter Reich and his colleagues have been carrying out free air carbon enrichment (FACE) experiments (see Exploring Science box in this chapter).

Go to the place marker on GE for Cedar Creek Natural History Area. The square grid to the west of the marker is the biodiversity experiment carried out by ecologist David Tilman and his coworkers. Each of the small squares in this grid contains a randomly-assigned set of 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 native prairie species. At the end of the growing season samples of above-ground and below-ground biomass are collected from each plot, cleaned, dried, and weighed to study the effect of species biodiversity on biomass production under relatively natural field conditions. The conclusion of this experiment is that mixtures of native plants produce significantly more biomass than do monocultures of domestic plants under the same conditions.

To the East you can see five faint circles surrounded by a service road. These circles are the carbon enrichment studies. The thin poles from which CO2 is emitted (see photo in boxed reading in text) are difficult to see at this resolution level. Sets of different species are also tested to determine their growth under elevated CO2 levels. As in Tilman’s work, Reich finds that mixtures of species produce more biomass than do single species. While most plants grow better under elevated CO2 levels, the nutritional quality of their biomass often declines. Furthermore, for all species except legumes, nitrogen quickly becomes limiting under this faster growth.

Questions:

1. What kind of land cover do you see around this facility?

2. What’s the diameter of one of the FACE circles?

3. How much is seed weight enhanced in this experiment? (see discussion in text)

4. What’s the benefit of doing these experiments in the open air in an abandoned farm field?

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Chapter 16

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Sudbury, Ontario p. 363

As your textbook describes, Sudbury is the site of the International Nickel Company (INCO) copper/nickel smelter. Starting in 1886, the corporate ancestors of INCO began smelting sulfide ore at this location. Sulfur dioxide released during the roasting of ore destroyed vegetation and turned the naturally pink granite bedrock black over a wide area during a century of smelting (see fig 16.22 in the textbook). In the 1950s, super tall smoke stacks—380 m tall, the tallest in Canada—were added to disperse air pollutants. The acidic plume could be traced all the way to Europe during this era. In the 1970s, scrubbers were added that removed 90 percent of the sulfur. The vegetation around Sudbury has started to recover (see fig 16.23, which was taken near the east shore of Lake Ramsey), but the rock surfaces remain black where they’re exposed to the air. In this aerial view on Google Earth you can see the factory with its super stack (emitting smoke--note its shadow) tailings ponds (green because of the copper content) and blackened rock nearby.

The town of Sudbury is immediately east of the smelter. Although the resolution is poor as you get farther away from the city, you can see a ring of dark green of normal forest if you go far enough out into the countryside. Notice how this differs from the bare rock and scrubby vegetation closer to the smelter.

1. How far from the smelter do you need to go to find dark, native forest?

2. Which way was the wind blowing when the image was taken?

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Chapter 17

Three Gorges Dam p. 374

This mammoth dam is one of the central structures of China’s South to North water project. Currently the largest dam in the world, the dam towers 185 m (600 ft) above the river and is 2k (1.25 mi) wide. It creates a reservoir 600 km (375 mi) long that displaced more than 1 million people and flooded thousands of historic sites as it was filled. Housing the world’s largest hydroelectric station, the dam will be capable of generating 18,200 MW of power when the reservoir is completely filled in 2009. This is equivalent to 35 to 40 coal-burning power plants or nuclear plants. Building the dam cost at least $30 billion (U.S.). There are worries that if the dam failed catastrophically (it’s built on an active fault line), it could endanger many of 100 million who live downstream around Shanghai and Suzhou. Water drawn from the Three Gorges Reservoir will have to cross hundreds of kilometers of rugged mountains before it gets to the arid plain around Beijing. There are also concerns that the water, which is polluted by sewage and industrial effluent of the nearly 100 million people who live upstream may make the water too polluted to use even if it reaches Beijing.

(Depending on the date of the imagery available, the dam may not extend all the way across the river. On the north side of the river are locks, which will raise and lower ships past the dam’s 150 m elevation change.)

Questions:

1. What river passes this dam and the Three Gorges? What province is this dam in?

2. If you move 50 km west of the dam, is the landscape mountainous or level? How about 50 km east of the dam?

3. Find the measuring tool (Tools > Measure). Roughly how far is the dam from Shanghai (as the crow flies)?

4. Follow the river upstream (west) to where it reaches the level landscape of the Sichuan Basin. This level area, surrounded by mountains, is an important cultural region in China, with prosperous, well-watered farmlands. The city of Chongqing stands on the river where the river enters the mountains. The Three Gorges dam will back up water as far as Chongqing. About how far is Chongqing from the dam?

5. What’s the latitude of the dam?

6. What’s the latitude of Beijing? What is the difference between Beijing’s latitude and yours?

7. Beijing has about 15 million residents. What is the difference between Beijing’s population and the population where you live? What is the primary water source where you live?

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Aral Sea, Lake Chad p. 383

Water diversion has badly depleted many water bodies, especially in dry regions. The Aral Sea and Lake Chad are two severe examples. The main reason for the drying of these water bodies is irrigation for farmlands, mostly producing export crops such as cotton or rice. Former fishing villages are now far from the shoreline and often abandoned. If you zoom in close to the Aral Sea place marker, you can see one former sea-side village that is now largely abandoned.

Questions:

1. What countries border the Aral Sea? (If country boundaries are not visible, turn on the “borders” layer in the Layers list.)

2. Yellow boundary lines show that the large island in the Aral Sea was once much smaller than it is today. It once held the city of Kantubek, now abandoned, which was a test site for biological weapons and a repository for nuclear and chemical waste materials. There is worry about these materials becoming accessible and distributed as the island approaches the mainland. Why has the island grown? How far is the island now from the mainland, at its closest point?

3. Zoom in near the place marker next to the Aral Sea. Why does the landscape have so many different colors here?

Go to the Lake Chad place marker.

4. You can see the former shape and size of Lake Chad because of the green shading that still marks moist low-lying lands, as well as the dune fields that mark a former sandy shoreline. What is the maximum length of the former lake? What is the maximum length of the current lake (visible in blue)?

5. What countries border Lake Chad?

6. Find a global climate map, in your text book or in an atlas. Does Lake Chad lie in a moderately dry or very dry region of the world?

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Palm Desert p. 384

This area of resort communities in the Coachella Valley is located in one of the hottest, driest parts of the country, and yet, as you can see from this aerial view, they are characterized by a plethora of golf courses and lush residential neighborhoods. None of this vegetation could exist here naturally. It’s all dependent on water imported from either northern California or the Colorado River. The excess that runs off from cities and farms sustains the Salton Sea to the Southeast. If farms and urban water users were forced to be more efficient, the Sea would become too salty to support wildlife and fish that have come to depend on it.

If you find this desert urbanization intriguing, try searching for Salton City, mid-way down the western shore of the Salton Sea. This is a city whose streets were all laid out and given optimistic and amusing names, but few structures were ever built there.

Questions:

1. How many golf courses can you see within about 10 km of Palm Desert?

2. What state is this city in?

3. What big city lies directly west of this area?

4. What vegetation type naturally occurs in this area?

5. Why is irrigating expansive lawns and golf courses inefficient in an arid climate?

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Glen Canyon Dam p. 388

Construction on this dam started in 1956 and was completed eight years later. The site was chosen as an alternative to dams in the Grand Canyon just downstream. It flooded Glenn Canyon, which many environmentalists considered the most beautiful of all the Colorado River Canyons, to create Lake Powell. It was built to generate electricity and store water for later use, but because of seepage into the porous sandstone and evaporation in the dry desert air, the dam actually loses thousands of acre-feet of water every year. It also blocks the flow of sediment into the Grand Canyon that is eliminating sand bars and changing the flow of the river to the detriment of both native species and water recreation. Former director of the Sierra Club, David Brower, called the decision not to oppose this dam the biggest mistake of his career. Other environmentalists have speculated about removing the dam (see The Monkey Wrench Gang by Edward Abbey). During the extended drought in the early 2000s, the surface of Lake Powell dropped by as much as 50 m (about 165 ft). If the water level drops much more, the dam will be unable to generate electricity.

Questions:

1. In what state is the dam?

2. In what state is the bulk of Lake Powell? For whom was Lake Powell named?

3. What river does the dam block? Can large reservoirs such as Lake Powell lose significant amounts of water? How?

4. What national park lies downstream?

5. The other major dam in this region of the Colorado River is the Hoover Dam. Try searching for the Hoover Dam using the GoogleEarth search function. What lake does it create?

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Snake River Dams p. 389

The Goose Island Dam is the first of four on the Snake River between its confluence with the Columbia and Lewiston, ID. These dams, which were authorized by Congress in 1945 to generate electrical power, provide irrigation water to farmers, and make Lewistown a deepwater seaport. Before these dams were built, the Snake produced half of the chinook salmon in the Columbia watershed. By blocking migration routes, the dams threatened this once prolific resource. In 1991, the Snake River sockeye was the first of 13 salmon and steelhead stocks in this watershed to be declared endangered. The federal government was forced to prepare recovery plans, but over the past 15 years, the courts have repeatedly rejected proposed plans that tried to protect the salmon while still maintaining the dams. In 2007, U.S. District Judge James Redden threatened to order destruction of the four dams unless the government submits a viable restoration plan. What do you think? How should we weigh the economic, ecological, cultural, and health effects of projects such as this?

Questions:

1. Besides Goose Island, what are the other three dams on the Snake between the Columbia and Lewistown? (Hint: turn on the Geographic Web layer).

2. What town is at the confluence of the Snake and Columbia Rivers?

3. What are the green circles near the Goose Island Dam?

4. How far upstream of the dam do they occur?

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Chapter 18

Arcata, California, p. 398

Questions:

2. Arcata is a relatively small, remote community. How is wastewater treatment different in such a situation, compared to in a larger metropolitan area?

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Eutrophication: Bohai Bay, Caspian Sea, p 403

Nutrients washing from farmlands and cities support algae blooms, which can deplete oxygen and kill fish and other marine organisms. Eutrophication (such excessive plant growth) is especially common in enclosed, shallow bays. Here are two examples.

Although colors vary among the satellite images you see, contrasting tones of green, or even yellow, in a blue sea often mark algae blooms.

Questions:

1. What is the large city about 130 km northwest of the bay?

2. Zoom to the Bohai Bay place marker. Is the green algae cloud concentrated in the back corners of the bay or in the middle? Why?

3. Refer to chapter 18 in your text: explain how pollution causes eutrophication.

4. Is the enclosed Bohai Bay the only instance of algal blooms on this coast of China?

Zoom to the Caspian Sea marker that follows the Bohai Bay marker.

5. Just west of the large, northern algae bloom is a ragged, complex shoreline that marks the delta where the Volga River enters the Caspian Sea. Zoom in and out as necessary to trace the Volga upstream. Would you say that extensive agriculture occurs near the mouth of the river or far upstream? In what way is this similar to the Mississippi? In what body of water is the “dead zone” that results from Mississippi River runoff?

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Cattle feedlot in Broken Bow, Nebraska, p 409

Most American beef is produced in feedlots such as this one. Because cattle can consume hundreds of liters of water and produce hundreds of liters of waste every day, water management is an important consideration in and around feedlots. Feedlots are a particular concern in some areas because feedlots have become a dominant form of food production, but laws regarding waste treatment have not evolved to keep up with proliferation of feedlot waste.

Questions:

1. What are the large, dark circles near the feedlot? (You may need to consult with your colleagues or instructor to answer this one.) What is their diameter?

2. As you look at the landscape around the feedlot, would you say that rainfall is abundant or scarce in this area? What clues help you answer this question?

3. Zoom in to the feedlot until you can see its features. Note the clusters of dark dots that are cattle lined up at feed troughs. The black lagoons are the wastewater holding ponds. How does this treatment method compare to the treatment method in conventional municipal water treatment facilities?

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Yamuna River, Delhi, India p. 410

Delhi, India’s capital city, is a sprawling, fast-growing metropolitan area of about 13 million people. Delhi includes an ancient old part of the city, known as Delhi, or old Delhi, and a new part of the city (New Delhi) built in the nineteenth century by the British colonial government. Connaught Circle is a major traffic circle and landmark in the newer part of the city. The main railway station can be found just north of this circle. Government buildings lie south of Connaught Circle, along a long, east-west-running strip of green boulevard. India is one of the largest and fastest-growing countries in the world. With 1.1 billion people, India’s population is set to exceed China’s in a few years. Delhi is India’s second largest city, after Mumbai. As a growing city in a developing country, Delhi faces severe problems in providing infrastructure to its population. Water supplies and water quality are critical problems here. The Yamuna River, which runs between the two place markers provided, enters the city with extraordinarily high coliform bacteria counts on the order of 7,500 colony-forming units per 100 ml. When the river leaves the city, it is vastly worse.

Questions:

1. What is the concentration of fecal coliform bacteria when the Yamuna leaves Delhi? (refer to p. 410 in your textbook). How does this compare to levels considered swimmable by U.S. law?

2. Zoom to the water treatment facility marked. The round tanks are aeration tanks where sewage is treated. Do you see any similar structures in other parts of the city?

3. Explain why cities such as Delhi have difficulty providing clean water and water treatment for their populations.

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Ashokan Reservoir, p. 414

The Ashokan Reservoir is a key part of the water supply of New York City. If you zoom out, you can see the Catskill Mountains, much of which drain into this reservoir and others built for New York. As noted in the What Do You Think? box in this chapter, New York City was faced with building an $8 billion treatment plant to purify its water the 1980s. Instead, the city has spent $50 million to help local landowners (farmers, residents, businesses, small towns) within the watershed manage their land to minimize polluted runoff into the water supply. The program has been a great success. It saves money, uses less energy, and helps preserve traditional land uses.

(The contrasting colors in the east and west arms of the reservoir are an artifact of having satellite images taken at different times.)

Questions:

1. Move westward from the reservoir. What sort of land use or land cover is dominant in the Catskill mountains? Now move eastward from the reservoir. As you leave the Catskills toward the Hudson River and across the river, what kinds of land uses do you see?

2. If the Catskills were cleared and developed, what would be the effects on water quality for the 12 million New York City residents who rely on clean water from this watershed?

3. Find the measuring tool (Tools menu > Measure), and zoom out. How far is it to New York City, as the crow flies?

4. People living in the Catskills sometimes object to restrictions on developing their land. If you were in charge of land use policy, what kinds of compromises or agreements would you make to encourage agreement between residents of the Catskills and residents of New York City?

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Chapter 19

Mountain top removal p. 424

There are many larger mines elsewhere in West Virginia and nearby states, but most are too low resolution in Google Earth (at the time of this writing) to be very visible.

Questions:

1. Coal is an important energy resource. Is it also a scarce resource?

2. Many impurities occur in coal, such as sulfur and mercury. Are these removed safely when the coal is burned?

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Vacuum Oil Field p. 433

While oil drilling often uses a relatively small drilling pad to reach multiple underground sites (see figure 19.10), oil drilling often requires more intensive drilling from the surface. An example of this is the Vacuum oil field in southeastern New Mexico. Here a separate well pad has been made at very close intervals. Peruse the first two place markers in this folder to see the landscape around this site. Measure the distance between them to get a sense of the size of this area.

Questions:

1. Approximately, how close are the wells around the first two place markers in the folder? (Find the measuring tool under Tools menu > measure.)

2. Zoom out and examine the area around the oil field 1 and 2 place markers. How extensive is the intensively-developed area of this oil field?

3. This folder has four place markers. What is the approximate distance between markers 3 and 4?

4. Roughly how many wells are in the area around marker 1? (Hint, count two of the lines at right angles)

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The Alaska National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been a focus of hot political debate since the mid-1990s. This landscape of ponds, tundra, and permafrost is controversial because of its high value for wildlife, including arctic caribou and millions of ducks, geese, and shorebirds. Biologists fear that oil drilling could disrupt this fragile environment. Oil companies argue that this remote landscape is of little use to us because it is a remote, mostly frozen area. This place marker shows a drilling station in Prudhoe Bay, which lies just west of ANWR. Drilling in ANWR would involve comparable drilling stations and access roads.

Ecologists’ chief concerns involve the potential for spills of oil and drilling fluids in the tundra, as well as the impacts of road networks needed to access drilling pads. Just northwest of the place marker you can see a drilling site where black and brown tones mark an apparent area of contaminated tundra.

Questions:

1. What is the latitude of the Prudhoe Bay place marker?

2. Zoom in to the patterned ground near the place marker. What makes up the polygon patterns?

3. Southeast of the place marker are a number of linear (or rectangular) black and white features. The black areas are containment ponds to store fluids used in drilling. What evidence do you see that these ponds do or don’t pose a hazard to water quality in the area?

4. Rates of biological activity—especially decomposition—is very different in the high arctic than at lower latitudes. How might this difference influence our assessment of the risks of oil drilling?

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Tar Sands, Alberta p. 435

Canada has huge amounts of tar sands (sand coated with tar-like bitumen) that are relatively close to the surface. These deposits are strip mined, and the bitumen is dissolved with hot water and detergent. Canada has become the largest supplier of oil for the United States. There are environmental costs in producing this oil. As your text point out, a typical plant producing 125,000 bbl of oil per day creates about 15 million m3 of toxic sludge, releases 5,000 tons of greenhouse gases, and consumes or contaminates billions of liters of water each year.

Questions

1. Where is this mine located?

2. What is the nearest town?

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Jonah gas field, coal bed methane p. 437

This is an example of coal-bed methane extraction, as described in the What Do You Think? box in your textbook. It is located south of Pinedale, Wyoming in the Upper Green River Basin. It is the site of the largest and longest large mammal migration route in the lower 48 states. Some 50,000 pronghorn antelope and 10,000 elk migrate each year into this basin between the Wind River Range to the East and the Salt River Range to the West.

Because methane doesn’t migrate easily through the geologic formations, wells have to be drilled close together to extract the gas. The 3,100 wells proposed for this 30,000 acre project are projected to disturb two-thirds of the land surface. Each well pad occupies only about 1 hectare of land, but the spider web of connecting roads and pipelines disturbs a large area. This project also creates a brown cloud of dust and air pollution from disturbed soil, truck traffic, and pumping and drilling operations.

Questions:

1. What are the white spots in this aerial view?

2. Why are they arranged in a rectilinear array?

3. Why are they connected like beads on a string?

4. Why do some of the white dots have black spots in them?

5. Does it look to you as if two-thirds of the land in this area is disturbed? If not, how might opponents have arrived at this claim?

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Chapter 20

Aero Island, Denmark p. 449

3. What is the predominant land use on Aero Island?

4. How might land use influence energy choices?

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Solar facility, Barstow, CA p. 455

This experimental solar facility near Barstow, CA has three different types of concentrated solar power (CSP) collectors. This site in the California desert captures abundant sunlight year-round and has been used to develop experimental, large-scale solar energy collectors:

A.) The shiny oval structure on the left (west) is a solar pond. This is a relatively low-tech, low cost approach to harvesting solar energy. The principle is to fill a pond with 3 layers of water:

1 A top layer with a low salt content

2 An intermediate insulating layer with a salt gradient, which sets up a density gradient that prevents heat exchange by natural convection in the water.

3 A bottom layer has with a high salt content which reaches a temperature approaching 90 degrees Celsius.

The different densities in the layers due to their salt content prevent convection currents developing which would normally transfer the heat to the surface and then to the air above. The heat trapped in the salty bottom layer can be used for different purposes, such as heating of buildings, industrial processes, or generating electricity.

B.) The rectangular arrays (bottom right) are parabolic trough systems (see fig 20.11 in text). The reflective surface of a parabolic trough concentrates sunlight onto a receiver tube located along the trough's focal line, heating the fluid flowing in the tube to as much as 400 degrees C. This heated fluid is then transported through pipes to a steam turbine/ generator. The troughs are normally designed to track the sun along one axis, predominantly north-south. Parabolic troughs assembled in collector fields are responsible for almost all commercially produced solar thermal power, with a total installed capacity of more than 350MWe in California representing over 90% of the world's installed solar capacity.

C.) The concentric circles (top center) are rows of mirrors surrounding a central power tower (also know as a 'heliostat' power plant). This design uses many flat, moveable mirrors (called heliostats) to focus the sun's rays upon a collector tower (the target). The high energy at this point of concentrated sunlight is transferred to a substance that can store the heat for later use. That energy can, in turn, be used to boil water for use in steam turbines that generate electricity.

Solar One, which operated at this site from 1982 to 1988, was the world’s largest power tower plant. In this plant, water was converted to steam in the receiver and used directly to power a conventional steam turbine generator. The heliostat field consisted of 1818 heliostats of 39.3 m reflective area each. The project met most of its technical objectives by demonstrating (1) the feasibility of 2 generating power with a power tower, (2) the ability to generate 10 MW for eight hours a day at summer solstice and four hours a day near winter solstice. During its final year of operation, Solar One’s availability during hours of sunshine was 96% and its annual efficiency was about 7%.

Solar Two To absorb and store energy, effectively, the facility was modified in 1996 to a more advanced molten-salt heat-transfer system. The Solar One heliostat field, the tower, and the turbine/generator required only minimal modifications. The salt storage medium is a mixture of 60 percent sodium nitrate and 40 percent potassium nitrate. It melts at 220oC (428oF) and is maintained in a molten state (290oC/554oF) in the ‘cold’ storage tank. Molten salt can be difficult to handle because it has a low viscosity (similar to water) and it wets metal surfaces extremely well. Consequently, it can be difficult to contain and transport. All tubing, valves, and storage tanks must be made of leak-proof, corrosion-resistant metals. Solar Two has produced 10 MW of electricity with enough thermal storage to continue to operate the turbine at full capacity for three hours after the sun has set.

A more recent heat transfer material that has been successfully demonstrated at other facilities is liquid sodium. Sodium is a metal with a high heat capacity, allowing that energy to be stored and drawn off throughout the evening. It is highly toxic, flammable, explosive, corrosive and dangerous, however.

Questions:

1. Why do you suppose this facility was located where it is?

2. Which of the three solar arrays most closely resembles that on Aero Island from the air?

3. Describe the placement of the mirrors in Solar Two

4. Why is the solar pond separated by horizontal dikes into 5 compartments?

5. Why might these three different types of solar collectors be placed so close together?

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Questions:

1. What river passes this dam and the Three Gorges? What province is this dam in?

2. If you move 50 km west of the dam, is the landscape mountainous or level? How about 50 km east of the dam?

3. Find the measuring tool (Tools > Measure). Roughly how far is the dam from Shanghai (as the crow flies)?

5. What’s the latitude of the dam?

6. What’s the latitude of Beijing? What is the difference between Beijing’s latitude and yours?

7. Beijing has about 15 million residents. What is the difference between Beijing’s population and the population where you live? What is the primary water source where you live?

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Altamont Pass, CA p. 468

Altamont Pass was one of the first large arrays of wind mills in the United States, and it remains one of the largest. It sits in a mountain pass just east of San Francisco, where strong breezes blow between the hot central valley and the cooler bay area.

One of the first large-scale wind developments in the United States, Altamont Pass developed a bad early reputation for killing migratory raptors that crossed the pass. Recent developments have been in open areas, rather than mountain passes, with more widely-separated windmills that cause few hazards to birds.

Questions:

1. How can you tell these are windmills?

2. Why are the windmills arranged in linear rows?

3. What is the freeway that passes to the south of the wind farm? (Hint: turn on the road layer)

4. Why do you suppose California was a leader in wind power?

5. What is the closest town to the west of Altamont and why might that be important to wind power development?

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Chapter 21

Alang Beach shipbreakers, India 479

This remote beach in India is the world’s largest ship-breaking yard. Decommissioning ships has become too expensive in most developed countries. The work is dangerous and old ships often are full of toxic and hazardous materials, such as oil, diesel fuel, asbestos, and heavy metals. No one wants to do this work, and no state or province will allow it to be done in their territory. In the developing world, however, environmental regulations often are lax and desperate workers will take any job available. On this 6 km stretch of hulk-littered coast, more than 40,000 workers tear apart obsolete oceangoing vessels using crowbars, cutting torches, and even their bare hands. Every year about 400 tankers, container vessels, and bulk carriers—roughly half of all the world’s scrapped vessels—end up on the oil-stained sands of Alang, stranded and doomed like so many beached whales.

A shallow, gently sloping bottom and unusually high tides allow the ships to be driven up onto the beach and then winched into position, where an army of laborers swarms over them like ants dismembering a dead beetle. Metal is dragged away and sold for recycling. Organic waste is often simply burned on the beach, where ashes and oily residue wash back into the water. Typically, it takes only about two months to completely dismantle and recycle a large tanker. Accidents among the workers are common. Almost no one has protective clothing—often not even shoes. Gangs of men cutting apart huge pieces of steel and hauling them ashore by hand frequently are injured. And even when they go home at night, workers and their families are only a few meters away from the toxic mess on the beach. Notice the shantytowns adjacent to the breaking yards.

Questions:

Why is the sand black around the beached ships?
How far is it from the closest of the ships to the workers shacks?
About 260 km southeast of Alang Beach is India’s largest city. What is the name of this city?
Why is it helpful to be close to a large, industrial city and yet across the bay?
(Extra question: about 50 km northeast from Alang Beach is a complex of white features along the bay. What are these features?)

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Freshkills Landfill, NY p. 479

This landfill was the principle waste disposal site for New York City during the second half of the 20th Century and was at one time the largest refuse heap in the world. Over the 53 years in which it was in operation, waste deposited there covered 900 ha (2,300 acres) and rose to a height of 50 m (162 ft) or taller than the nearby Statue of Liberty. In March 2001, the landfill was declared closed. After the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, Freshkills was reopened to receive and process much of the debris from the destruction.

In 2003, plans were made to convert the site to a landscaped park and restored wetland. When the GE image was made most of the landfill was already closed, but a small area on the north side of the creek can be seen to still be active. You can see garbage barges tied up along the banks of the creek. Several other areas on either side of the freeway and along the upstream portion of the creek had been graded and covered with vegetation.

Questions:

1. Groups of barges are tied up in the river that runs through the landfill. What are they for?

2. Find your Ruler tool (under the Tools menu at the top of the window, if it’s not already turned on). How far is it across this landfill?

3. Zoom out and around the landscape surrounding Freshkills landfill. What are some other features that could give you an idea of how clean or polluted the area is? Would it be a problem for you to live in the neighborhoods just south and east of the landfill? Relative to what other environmental risks or nuisances?

4. What island is this landfill on?

(5. Extra question: What does "kill" mean in the name "Freshkills"?)

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U.S. Superfund Sites p. 489

As you can read in your textbook, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) passed in 1980 and modified in 1984 authorized rapid containment, cleanup, or remediation of abandoned toxic waste sites. The EPA estimates there are at least 36,000 seriously contaminated sites in the United States. The 1,305 sites on the National Priority List (NPL) are identified by the place markers on Google Earth. You can find a ranking of these sites based on the toxicity and hazard of the material they contain at http://www.scorecard.org/env-releases/land/rank-sites.tcl Only 5 new sites were proposed for the NPL in 2007 because of declining funds available. The EPA reports that remediation or containment is complete at 1,010 of these sites.

This folder contains place markers for all Superfund sites. Each site has basic documentation as well as a link to the US EPA Superfund web site, which reports the site's contaminants, as well as its clean-up status. This file was produced by US EPA, which updates to the data regularly. Those updates as well as documentation describing the contents of the file can be found at URL:http://www.epa.gov/enviro

This file was downloaded from the EPA website on 1/20/2007 and was converted to the KML format by Michigan Tech Research Institute (www.mtri.org).

Questions:

1. If you live in the United States, find a superfund site near your home (if you live elsewhere, find a site that sounds interesting). What is its name?

2. What sort of activity created this site?

3. What wastes are stored there?

4. What is its current status?

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Chapter 22

Curitiba, Brazil p. 487, 508

As you can read in your textbook, Curitiba is considered one of the most environmentally sustainable cities in the world. The city has many features that make it an ecological model. Among these are its bus rapid transit system, its many parks, and the preservation of the historic downtown as a successful pedestrian shopping area. While Curitiba has faced many of the challenges of rapid growth, early investment in sustainability continue to make this city more livable and equitable than most in Brazil.

Because Curitiba is a city of nearly 2 million people, we’ve provided several place markers to show some of these features.

A. Rapid transit terminals serve as both transfer points for passengers transferring between the dedicated high-speed bus ways and local feeder routes as well as providing shopping opportunities where commuters can buy food and other daily necessities. In the terminal building (4 large arch-topped tubular structures) there are shopping arcades. Outside in the bus yard, you can see both single-unit local buses and the bi-articulated high-speed buses. Passengers board these busses at the long platforms with rows of square skylights. Notice that the high speed buses load from the left side of the largest platform, while local (single unit) buses load on the right. If you follow the dedicated transit way to the north (toward town), you’ll see some of the three-unit buses on roads as well as small, widely-spaced intermediate stops. Local buses (single units) can be seen sharing city streets with cars.

B. Rua Quinze de Novembro (The 15th of November Street) in the heart of Curitiba is the center of the walking district. This is also the heart of the historic city. Notice the absence of vehicles and the presence of trees in the center of the street. These walking streets offer shoppers and residents numerous places to sit and chat or have a bite to eat. Although shop owners were skeptical of the concept at first, this district has proven to be highly successful. There isn’t just a single pedestrian mall in Curitiba as there is in many cities, but rather many blocks of the central downtown are automobile free.

If you look about one block east of this place marker, you can see one of the “tube” bus stations that speed up the bus loading and unloading process.

C. The Parque Tangua is the newest and one of the largest city parks in Curitiba. It was created (as were several of the parks) in an abandoned stone quarry. The centerpiece of the park is a curved pavilion sitting above a high cliff overlooking a small lake used for boating. This pavilion is shown in the opening photograph for chapter 22.

D The Botanic Garden is another iconic place for Curitiba. The central greenhouse, designed by former mayor Jamie Lerner, has his signature tubular construction, which is both strong and inexpensive to build. Many brochures about Curitiba show the triple domed greenhouse. Notice the interesting patterns of the formal gardens, the paths for strolling through outdoor collections, and the fact that a patch of native forest is preserved in this garden.

Questions:

1. Is this city larger or smaller than your town?

2. Look at the concentrated shantytowns around the place marker for Rio de Janeiro (later in this chapter). Do you see similar informal developments in Curitiba? Why or why not?

3. Look at the red buses parked at the bus terminal place marker. Are the three units of the biarticulated buses the same size? Why?

4. What is the latitude of Curitiba? What is a city in North America that is at a comparable latitude in the northern hemisphere?

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Shanghai p. 501

This megalopolis at the mouth of the Yangtze River is the center of the largest population concentration in China. Altogether more than 100 million people live in this urban area. The historic city is on the west side of the Huang Pu River. The Bund, or riverside district, contains many colonial buildings. On the east side of the river, the Pudong (or Pootung) district has seen most of the new building in recent years. It is reported that more than 4,000 skyscrapers (buildings more than 20 stories tall) were built in Shanghai in the 1990s.

Shanghai spent U.S. $1.2 billion to build a super-fast maglev (magnetic levitation) train from the city center to the international airport on the coast near Chuansha. The train has a maximum speed in normal operation of 431 km/h (268 mph), but because it has only 30 km (19 mi) of track, it rarely reaches that speed.

A new, sustainable city is being built on Chongming Dao (Island) in the Yangtze River just east of Shanghai. According to city officials, Chongming Dongtan will be completely self-supporting in energy, water, and waste disposal and largely self-supporting in food supplies. If plans for renewable energy come to fruition, it will also be carbon-neutral. Planners also hope to protect and even expand forest area and unique wetlands that now exist on the island. However, the island, which only appeared in 1947, has a maximum elevation of 4 m and much of its area could be lost to rising sea levels and erosion as future sediment deposits are halted by the Three Gorges Dam. Dongtan is expected to house 50,000 residents by 2010. Interestingly, Chongming is a major relocation center for people displaced by the Three Gorges Dam.

Questions:

1. Where is Shanghai located in China?

2. Zoom in to the place marker at the center of the old city. What makes the shadows you can see on the right side of the river?

3. What is the name of this region of Shanghai, where most new building occurred in the 1990s?

4. Chongming Island appeared in the 1940s, as sediment accumulated from upstream in the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River). What is its elevation (hint: turn on the “terrain” layer to see elevations)?

5. What evidence can you see from the air that the Pudong region is newer and more modern than the Bund district, the older city on the west side of the river?

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Shantytowns of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and Mumbai, India p. 503

Shantytowns, slums, and other informal urban areas are common in fast-growing cities of developing countries. While these are often unsafe places to live and raise children, residents stay because they cannot afford to go elsewhere. Thus these neighborhoods continue to grow, as urban populations grow, and as migrants move to the city from impoverished rural areas. These areas have little access to public services such as water, sanitation, garbage removal, transportation, police, or infrastructure maintenance. Many factors contribute to these problems.

Shantytowns exist in many areas. Here are three examples in some of the world’s largest cities. The Dharavi slum in Mumbai is one of the most densely crowded shanty towns in the world, with more than 45,000 people per hectare. An estimated 700,000 people live in the Kibera area of Nairobi, but that number is growing rapidly. The Rio place marker marks one of many informal neighborhoods in Rio. Zoom in near the marker to see the clustered housing and irregular streets in this neighborhood. Many other informally-developed neighborhoods can be found in other parts of Rio.

Questions:

1. What are some of the forces that would lead people to live in these neighborhoods?

2. What are some of the forces that would prevent them from moving elsewhere?

3. Several other cities with shantytowns and slums are listed in your text. Look for one or two of these cities. Is it easy or hard to locate these neighborhoods in these cities?

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Lake Calumet Industrial District p. 505

This neighborhood and its efforts to protect itself are described in the What Do You Think? boxed reading. Part of a challenge of an aging industrial area is that people are still there, but jobs are gone. Another part of the challenge is that the area must be cleaned up before it can be reused. Toxic and hazardous compounds often contaminate the soil and water, and crumbling industrial buildings must be safely removed.

Questions:

1. Compare the map on p. 505 to the image (note that East is up, not North). Follow the Lake Calumet River to find where the steel mills stood. Are they still standing?

2. The channel from this ship basin leads to which of the Great Lakes?

3. Why did heavy industrial facilities, such as steel mills, need water transportation to this site?

4. The former slag dump at the north (left) end of the ship basin has been transformed to a new use. What is that use?

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Sun City: This suburb of Phoenix claims to be the first and largest planned retirement community in America. It has seven recreation centers, eight golf courses, three country clubs, two bowling centers and an artificial lake. All this greenery takes a lot of water in the hot, dry, Arizona climate. Note the abrupt boundary between the verdant neighborhoods of Sun City and the surrounding desert. As you can see from this aerial view, housing units are built in concentric circles and long undulating streets that make an interesting pattern from above, but preclude much pedestrian traffic.

Questions:

2. In what state is this city located?

3. How likely is it that you would walk to a shopping center or grocery store if you lived here?

4. From what altitude can you see the golf courses and other features of this development? Could you see these features from space?

Salton City: Many American cities have been built on speculation--in the hopes of getting rich by selling lots. This was not a particularly successful example.

Questions:

6. would you build a house here? why or why not? Was it a good idea to build all these streets here? why or why not?

7. Turn off road names (in the Layers) to see the ornate patterns of the streets. Turn on road names. Which set of road names do you like best?

8. Zoom out to see the location of Salton City. What would be the nearest major water supply that could provide water for this city?

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Chapter 23

Vacuum oil field p. 520

(see chapter 19)

This part of southwestern New Mexico and western Texas has been a major oil producing region. Oil extraction has had marked effects on the landscape and on the economy and culture of the region.

1. Is this a renewable or non-renewable resource?

2. What are the costs and benefits of this resource to local residents? To oil well owners? To the country as a whole?

3. How would you plan differently if your wealth was based on a non-renewable resource, as compared to depending on a renewable resource?

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Mumbai, India p. 522

This area of Mumbai, India's largest city, has several large international hotel complexes, including the Hyatt, Meridien, and Grand Maratha hotels. Adjacent to this hotel and park complex are large, dense neighborhoods of low-income housing and slums. Classical economics predicts that the resources shared between these neighborhoods are finite, and that both cannot become wealthier at the same time. Neoclassical economics predict that increasing wealth in the wealthy sector can spill over and raise incomes in low-income areas. Which of these viewpoints makes most sense to you?

Questions:

1. One of our great economic challenges is reducing poverty in the growing cities of developing countries. Zoom out from the place marker and move around the image to find the margins of the city of Mumbai. About how long is the developed area, from north to south?

2. One of the positions of ecological economics is that resources must be internalized for economic stability. What are some of the resources on which a city like Mumbai depends?

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Norilsk nickel smelter, Russia p. 523

Norilsk has the heavy metal mining complex in the world and is one of the world's most polluted places. Norilsk was founded in 1935 as a slave labor camp and it remains a closed city from which all foreigners (and observers) are excluded. The city still has much of the bleak, grimy character of its pioneer days. Every year the mines and smelters produce more than 400,000 metric tons of copper, 250,000 tons of nickel, 95 tons of palladium, and 22 tons of platinum. In this process, 2,000 tons of dust, ash, and toxic metals including cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, arsenic, selenium and zinc are dispersed into the city air. Other air pollutants in the city include Strontium-90, Caesium-137, sulfur dioxide, particulates, phenols and hydrogen sulfide. Snow turns black as soon as it falls in Norilsk, and the air tastes bitter and metallic. Acids from sulfur and nitrogen oxides eat away paint. Everything is coated with soot and ash. Factory workers life expectancy is 10 years below the Russian average (which is already one of the lowest in the industrialized world). Respiratory diseases are extremely high. Children living in Norilsk are twice as likely to become ill as elsewhere in Russia. High rates of miscarriage and birth defects as well as infertility have been reported. Many residents would like to leave Norilsk, but having been attracted there by relatively high wages, they are now to sick to move elsewhere.

Questions:

1. What are some of the costs associated with this nickel mine and smelter? Note the housing complex just east of the factory.

2. Does this factory have a responsibility for workers’ health?

3. Are environmental and health costs limited to the area near the factory (hint: refer to the case of Sudbury, Ontario, discussed in chapter 16.) Does this matter?

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Shrimp ponds, Thailand p. 527

This causes a number of environmental problems. Construction of these ponds destroys valuable coastal habitat—particularly mangrove forests that once protected coastlines and acted as a nursery for a wide variety of sea life. In the densely crowed ponds, diseases spread quickly, so that operators need to use high levels of pesticides and antibiotics to keep the shrimp healthy. Waste water from the ponds—rich in uneaten food, feces, dead animals, antibiotics, and cleansing agents—contaminates near coastal waters and results in eutrophication. Few farmers successfully complete the full life-cycle of the shrimp in captivity. Instead, shrimp larvae are harvested from the wild—thus depleting native stocks and other species caught along with the shrimp—and introduced into the ponds. Shrimp are carnivorous, so wild fish are caught and processed into fishmeal for shrimp food. By some estimates, one-third of all wild-caught fish now go into fishmeal for various types of aquaculture. This is a tremendous drain on wild fish populations.

Questions:

1. What ecological services do these ponds rely on?

2. What ecological services may be impaired by these ponds? (Hint: to begin, think about the effects of losing coastal mangroves.)

3. If you had the opportunity to get rich quickly by converting mangroves to shrimp ponds, should you do it? Why or why not?

4. How, or in what circumstances, could market forces set fair prices for the lost ecological services associated with these shrimp ponds? Should those costs be included in the prices you pay for Thai shrimp when you buy it in the U.S.?

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Chapter 24

Tellico Dam p. 541

Nearly every policy debate hinges on arguments about some local problem or decision. For example, a two-block neighborhood called Love Canal helped initiate the Superfund and new laws about toxic waste disposal (chapter 21). For the Endangered Species Act (ESA), the Tellico Dam, on the Little Tennessee River, was the site of a major dispute about what the Act really meant. When the Tennessee Valley Authority proposed this dam in the early 1970s, opponents argued that it wasn’t needed, wasn’t cost-effective, and would destroy historic cultural features. The dispute heated up when spawning beds of a tiny fish, the snail darter, was discovered near the dam site. The ESA made it illegal for the Tennessee Valley Authority to destroy the only known population of this fish. Could the need for this dam override the power of the ESA?

The dam was completed in 1982. If you have the “populated places” layer turned on, you can see the names of historic places now submerged in the reservoir.

If the “borders” or “roads” layer is on, turn them off so you can see the dam.

Questions:

1. Which direction is the Tennessee River flowing here?

2. What large town is NE of the dam?

3. What major city lies bout 150 km downstream of the dam?

4. The text on p. 541 notes that the “God Squad” was called on in the Tellico Dam case. What is the “God Squad?”

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Glen Canyon Dam p. 546

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Washington DC, site of our federal government p. 548

National environmental laws—like other laws in the United States—are argued out and made into law in Washington. Viewing the features in Washington can help you fix in your mind the different institutions here, which can help you remember what they do.

The United States capital is also interesting because it is one of the most planned cities in the nation. Its monumental buildings, grand boulevards, parks and open spaces can be seen in this view of the capitol mall. The city combines grand neoclassical government buildings, monuments, memorials, and museums with a variety of art, theatre, music and cultural venues. Visitors can spend days in the various museums of the Smithsonian Institution.

Questions:

1. Where is the Capitol building in this view?

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Chapter 25

This shallow, salty bay is one of the last, undeveloped nurseries for the California Grey Whale. The Mitsubishi Corporation planned to build a salt extraction works here, to be the largest evaporation facility in the world. As your text discusses, international opposition to this plan persuaded both Mitsubishi and the Mexican Government to abandon the project. In 2005, local residents and environmental NGOs signed an agreement with the government to preserve 50,000 ha of land around the lagoon as a biosphere preserve.

Questions:

1. What is the name of the peninsula on which the lagoon is situated?

2. What is the name of the Japanese corporation that planned to build and operate the salt works? (see textbook)

3. Why do the whales travel so far to give birth?

4. On which side of the peninsula is the lagoon located?