One of the major limitations of observational research methods is that ___

In marketing and the social sciences, observational research (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experilovement.

Índice Show

Controlled Observation
Limitations
Naturalistic Observation
Limitations
Participant Observation
Limitations
Recording of Data

Observational research is a method of data collection that has become associated with qualitative research. [1] Compared with quantitative research and experimental research, observational research tends to be less reliable but often more valid[citation needed]. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Observational research measures behavior directly, rather than the subject's self-reports of behavior or intentions. The main disadvantage is it is limited to behavioral variables. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables.

Generally, there are three methods used to collect data in observational research:[2]

Covert observational research – The researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. The advantages of this approach are: (1) It is not necessary to get the subjects' cooperation, and (2) The subjects' behaviour will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings with the deceit involved in this approach.[3]
Overt observational research – The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects may modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their "ideal self" rather than their true self in what is called the Hawthorne Effect. The advantage that the overt approach has over the covert approach is that there is no deception (see, for example, PCIA-II[4]
Participant Observation – The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena.[5]

In marketing research, the most frequently used types of observational techniques are:

Personal observation
- observing products in use to detect usage patterns and problems
- observing license plates in store parking lots
- determining the socio-economic status of shoppers
- determining the level of package scrutiny
- determining the time it takes to make a purchase decision
Mechanical observation[6]
- eye-tracking analysis while subjects watch advertisements
  - oculometers – what the subject is looking at
  - pupilometers – how interested is the viewer
- electronic checkout scanners – records purchase behaviour
- on-site cameras in stores
- people meters (as in monitoring television viewing) e.g.Nielsen box
- voice pitch meters – measures emotional reactions
- psychogalvanometer – measures galvanic skin response
Audits[7]
- retail audits to determine the quality of service in stores
- inventory audits to determine product acceptance
- shelf space audits
- scanner based audits
Trace Analysis[8]
- credit card records
- computer cookie records
- garbology – looking for traces of purchase patterns in garbage
- detecting store traffic patterns by observing the wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the floor (short term)
- exposure to advertisements
Content analysis[9]
- observe the content of magazines, television broadcasts, radio broadcasts, or newspapers, either articles, programs, or advertisements

Behavioral economics
Consumer behaviour
Content analysis
Cultural anthropology
Enterprise engagement
Ethnography
Experimental techniques
Marketing
Marketing research
Qualitative marketing research
Quantitative marketing research
Usability testing

^ Richie, J and Lewis, J., Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 2003, p. 3
^ Kazdin, Alan (2002), Research Design in Clinical Psychology, 4th ed., Needham Heights, MA, Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0-205-33292-7 Chapter 9
^ Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, p. 219
^ Holigrocki, R. J., & Kaminski, P. L., "A structural and microanalytic exploration of parent-child relational psychopathology," Constructivism in the Human Sciences, Vol. 7, 2002, pp 111-123; Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H., "Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment," Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, Vol. 63, No. 3, 1999, 413–428.
^ Becker, H.S., "Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation," American Sociological Review, Vol. 23, No. 6, 1958, pp. 652-660
^ Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, pp 217-224
^ Housden, M., CIM Coursebook 05/06: Marketing Research and Information, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005 [e-book edition]
^ Kunzli, A., "Empirical Approaches," in Handbook of Translation Studies, Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer (eds), Volume 4, John Benjamin, 2003, pp 53-98
^ Drisko, J. and Maschi, T., Content Analysis, Oxford University Press, 2016

Russell W. Belk (ed), Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006
Constance T. Fischer (ed), Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists, Elsevier, 2006

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Observational_techniques&oldid=1039451280"

By Dr. Saul McLeod, published 2015

Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious method of carrying out research in psychology. However, there are different types of observational methods and distinctions need to be made between:

1. Controlled Observations
2. Naturalistic Observations

3. Participant Observations

In addition to the above categories observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the participants know they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the research keeps their real identity a secret from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group).

In general, observations are relatively cheap to carry out and few resources are needed by the researcher. However, they can often be very time consuming and longitudinal.

Controlled Observation

Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a psychology laboratory.

The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.

Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation).

The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories. Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristic, or use of a scale to measure behavior intensity.

The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics.

For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure infant's interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.

Proximity and contacting seeking
Contact maintaining
Avoidance of proximity and contact
Resistance to contact and comforting

The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second intervals and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.

Sometimes the behavior of participants is observed through a two-way mirror or they are secretly filmed. This method was used by Albert Bandura to study aggression in children (the Bobo doll studies).

A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well. Here electrodes are attached to the scalp of participants and what is observed are the changes in electrical activity in the brain during sleep (the machine is called an electroencephalogram – an EEG).

Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group, so the participants know they are being observed.

Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping a distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way mirror).

Strengths

1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.

2. The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e. numerical) - making this a less time-consuming method compared to naturalistic observations.

3. Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

1. Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect/demand characteristics. When participants know they are being watched they may act differently.

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists.

This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.

In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior without system. There may be too much to record and the behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the most important so the approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors would be recorded.

Compared with controlled observations it is like the difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.

With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of life of different tribes living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup in Oxfordshire.

Strengths

1 By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting studies have greater ecological validity.

2. Like case studies, naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests avenues of inquiry not thought of before.

Limitations

1. These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society.

2. Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.

3. A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognize aspects of a situation that are psychologically significant and worth further attention.

4. With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables) which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives.

If it were research on animals we would now not only be studying them in their natural habitat but be living alongside them as well!

This approach was used by Leon Festinger in a famous study into a religious cult who believed that the end of the world was about to occur. He joined the cult and studied how they reacted when the prophecy did not come true.

Participant observations can be either cover or overt. Covert is where the study is carried out 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied.

The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.

On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe.

Limitations

1. It can be difficult to get time / privacy for recording. For example, with covert observations researchers can’t take notes openly as this would blow their cover. This means they have to wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations.

2. If the researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become bias. There is always the danger that we will “see” what we expect (or want) to see. This is a problem as they could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe. Thus reducing the validity of their data.

Recording of Data

With controlled / structured observation studies an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually this will involve a method of sampling. The three main sampling methods are:

Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behavior (events) she is interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of behavior are ignored.
Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the occurrence of the specified behavior during that period only.
Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected moments when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant. Everything happening before or after is ignored.

How to reference this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2015, June 06). Observation methods. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html

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