The overload principle refers to a physical training practice in which the body is intentionally pressed to work beyond its current limits. The purpose of overloading the body in this way is to improve the body's efficiency at performing the particular physical act. Show
The effects of the overload principle are achieved through steadily increasing the work load for the desired exercise or task. Additionally, training duration may be increased as a means of improving endurance.
When applying the overload principal to athletic or physical training on the job, the goal is usually to improve performance of a specific task or exercise. For instance, an employee who needs to lift a minimum amount to transfer to a different position might gradually increase his or her lifting capacity in order to reach this goal. As with other intensive training regimens, overloading must be carefully managed in order to avoid burnout, muscle fatigue, muscle damage, or other musculoskeletal damage. When applying the overload principle during training regular rest and recovery periods must be observed. Failure to allow the body adequate time to recovery and adjust to higher intensities of labor can cause overreaching or overtraining syndrome to occur.
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The increase in performance generally is related to the achievement of adaptive changes in the organism. Adaptive changes can be achieved by repeated application of Exercise load. The way to achieve adaptive changes in the organism is a systematic repetition of Exercise load. Repeated loads refer to as adaptation stimulus. The principle of adaptive changes is the axis: homeostasis → adaptation stimulus (load) → adaptation. If adaptation stimuli are applied properly, training can be expected to have accumulative effect. If motor activity is carried out in such a way that it evokes desirable current change of human functional activity, and consequently long-term, structural and psycho-social changes, it can be referred to as load. Example If I run every other night in the park without much planning and adherence to the principles of sports training, sooner or later pass the same track may be quicker, but also feeling more relaxed, which is a simplified functional change. Psychosocial changes in this case represent my daily effort and responsibility run out every night out. The classification exercise as adaptation stimuliFrom the point of view of manipulation with exercise load, it is necessary to identify the rate of specificity of exercise with each exercise, its intensity and volume. Rate of specificity of exerciseIndicates how to what extent exercise is similar to the final design of sports activities. Specifity relates to the sequence of implementing certain muscle groups, the velocity of movements, the effort exerted, the duration of muscle tension, movement frequency, its direction and movement. We distinguish between the following exercises: Competition exercises are fully consistent with the design competition (e.g., an attack hit in volleyball). Special exercises assume higher, up to a high degree of compliance with the content and structure of sport specialization. They represent different parts and sub-variants of the final design and is used to improve athletic performance factors (physical, tactics), such variations attack hit in volleyball (e.g., attack after turning 360 degrees, after run back from the network after a landing). Generally nonspecific exercises are exercises which are not related to the given sports specialization. They aim at general development of athletes. The meaning of the exercises is versatile and indirect in respect to specialized perormance: (e.g. presupposition for development of reactive force for volleyball in gym, e.g. back squat). Intensity
We distinguish the ways energy coverage:
Hear rate indirectly reflects load intensity (heart rate increases with increasing load):
VolumeThe volume of exercise expresses the quantity of load. Volume can be epressed in time, i.e. duration of exercise or the number of repetitions of an exercise respectively. In training practice, the volume of load is expressed with general and specific training indicators. General training indicators are used in all sports disciplines in a similar way. They are for example the number of training hours, number of training units or number of training days. Specific training indicators are based on the contents of a specific sports discipline. They are for example the number of kilometers covered by running within II intensity zone, number of technically correctly carried out javelin throws, number of sets played in basic setup in volleyball or the number of kilometers covered by cycling uphill etc. Size of load The size of load is understood as a multi-dimensional magnitude which is created by load characteristics:
Crucial features for the volume of load are duration and intensity of exercise in the relationship of indirect proportion. (The higher the intensity, the smaller exercise volume.) Example: running the maximum intensity that will be achieved in terms of maximum speed we can keep the length of several tens of seconds. On the contrary, brisk walking, we are able to handle several hours walking trip. Increase the size of the load can be in several ways:
Method of increasing the size of the load related to the current stage of sports training and the current phase of the annual macrocycles (see chapter 13). LoadingLoading is a process of applying load which has been devined in advance repeatedly in time. The aim of loading is reaching cumulative training effect. Cumulative training effect arises form the phenomenon of supercompensation. Supercompensation is understood as increasing energy resources of the organism as a consequence of previous exercise load (defined by intensity and size). Figure 3 The emergence of supercompensation  Example: if an athlete runner goes throut training II zone intensity (see chapter 7), he/she runs out of energy resources during training because of applied load. This phenomenon is manifested on the outside as fatique. Training is followed by rest during which recovery and repletion of energy resources before further training takes place. Energy resources repletion, however, does not stop at the previous level but there is an increase in energy resources. Subsequent load (further training) should ideally start right at the moment of supercompensation. Telling the moment of supercompensation is very difficult and it is influenced by a number of factors. At present, the optimum time for further load can be told by using a method of the variability of heart rate. If further load starts at the moment of supercompensation, cumulative training effect can be expected to appear. If further load starts too early when the athlete’s organism has not been fully recovered yet, exhaustion is likely to appear. In a long-term perspective, this can lead to negative consequences of sports training, i.e. overtraining. Page 2
Metabolic specificity of exercise and training is based on an understanding of the transfer of energy in biological systems. Efficient and productive training program can be designed through an understanding of the process of energy repletion for muscle work of various inensity and duration of load. Basic TerminologyBioenergetics or the flow of energy in a biological system, concerns primarily the conversion of macronutrients-carbohydrates, proteins and fats, which contain chemical energy. Energy emerges with the decomposition of high-energy bonds in such macronutrients which release energy needed to carry out mechanic work. vzniká rozkladem vysoce energetických vazeb high-energy bonds v těchto makroživinách, které uvolňují energii potřebnou k vykonání mechanické práce. Catabolism is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules, associated with the release of energy (e.g. breakdown of glycogen into glucose). Anabolism is opposite of catabolism. It is the synthesis of larger molecules from smaller molecules (e.g. synthesis of proteins from amino acids). Exegetic reactions are energy-releasing reaction and are generally catabolic (e.g. breakdown of adenosine troposphere into adenosine diphosphate). Endergonic reactions require energy and include anabolic processes. Metabolism is the total of all the catabolic or exergonic and anabolic or endergonic reactions in a biological system. Energy derived from catabolic or exergonic is used to drive anabolic or endergonics reactions through an intermediate molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenosine triphosphate allows the transfer of energy from exergonic to endergonic reactions. Without an adequate supply of ATP, muscular activity and growth would not be possible. Figure 4 Molecule Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine triphosphate is composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups. Adenosine is the combination of adenine (a nitrogen base) and ribose (a five carbon sugar). The breakdown of one molecule of ATP to yield energy is known as hydrolysis, because it requires one molecule of water. The hydrolysis of ATP is catalyzed by presence of an enzyme called adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase). This adduct is classified as a high energy molecule because it stores large amounts of energy in the chemical bonds of two terminal phosphate groups. Equation 1: hydrolysis of ATP. Biological energy systemsThree basic energy systems exist in human muscle cells to replenish ATP:
We know two types of the metabolism (anaerobic and aerobic). Anaerobic processes do not require the presence of oxygen. The phosphagen system and first phase of glycolysis (fast glycolysis) are anaerobic mechanisms that occur in the sarcoplasm of a muscle cell. The Krebs cycle, electron transport, and the rest of the oxidative system (slow glycolysis, the oxidative system) are aerobic mechanism that occur in the mitochondria of muscle cells and require oxygen as the terminal electron receptor. Phosphate system provides energy for a very short time at the beginning of motor activity through the hydrolysis of ATP resources and decomposition of CP (creatine phosphate). Fast glycolysis uses carbohydrates as a substrate for creating ATP during high-intensity activities without the presence of oxygen. The final product of fast glycolysis is pyruvate which is furter converted to lactate. Slow glycolysis uses carbohydrates as a substrate for creating ATP during medium- and low-intensity activities where pyruvate, the final product of glycolysis, is not converted to lactate but it is transported to mitochondria where they are subject to Krebs Cyclus. Slow glycolysis is conditioned by a sufficient amount of oxygen. Oxidative system uses fats as a substrate for creating ATP during low-intensity activities where fats enter the Krebs Cycle directly provided there is a sufficient amount of oxygen. Of the three main macronutriens (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) only carbohydrates can be metabolized for energy without direct involvement of oxygen. Therefore, carbohydrates are critical during anaerobic metabolism. All tree energy systems are active at any given time. The magnitude of the contribution of each system to overall work performance is primarily dependent on the intensity of the activity and secondarily on duration. Figure 5 Scheme of energy completion in human body Legend: ATP-Adenosine triphosphate Phosphagen system (ATP-CP)The phosphagen system provides ATP primarily for short-term, high-intensity activities (e.g., resistance training and sprinting) and is active at the start of all exercise regardless of intensity. This energy system relies on the hydrolysis of ATP and breakdown of another high-energy phosphate molecule called creatinephosphate (CP). Creatine kinase is the enzyme that catalyzed the synthesis of ATP from CP and ADP in the following reaction: Creatine phosphate supplies a phosphate group that combines with ADP to replenish ATP. The creatine kinase reaction provides energy at a high rate. CP is stored in relatively small amounts; the phosphagen system cannot be the primary supplier of energy for continuous, long duration activities. ATP in the body stores approximately 80 to 100g of any given time, which does not represent a significant energy reserve for exercise. The skeletal muscle concentration of CP is four to six times higher than ATP concentration. Therefore, the phosphagen system, through CP and the creatine kinase reaction, serves as an energy reserve for rapidly replenishing ATP. In addition, Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers contain higher concentrations of CP than Type I (slow-twitch) fibers. Another important single-enzyme reaction then can rapidly replenish ATP is the adenylate kinase (also called myokinase) reaction: This reaction is particularly important because AMP a product of the adenylate kinase (myokinase) reaction is a powerful stimulant of glykolysis. Control of the Phoshagen System The reactions of the phosphagen system are largely controlled by the law of mass action. The law of mass action states that the concentrations of reactants or product (or both) in solution will drive the direction of the reaction. For example, as ATP is hydrolyzed to yield energy necessary for exercise, there is a transient increase in ADP concentration in the sarcolemma. This will increase the rate of creatine kinase and adenyle kinase reactions to replenish the ATP supply. GlycolysisGlycolysis is the breakdowns of carbohydrates-either glycogen stored in the muscle and in the liver or glucose delivered in the blood-to resynthesize ATP. The process of glycolysis involves multiple enzymatically catalyzed reaction. As a result, the ATP resynthesis rate during glycolysis is not as rapid as with phosphagen system; however, the capacity is much higher due to a larger supply of glycogen and glucose compared to CP. As with the phosphagen system occurs in the sarcoplasm. Pyruvate is the end result of glycolysis, may proceed in one of two directions:
When pyruvate is converted into lactate, ATP resynthesis is slower and it depends on the intensity and duration of motor activity. This process is called anaerobic glycolysis (fast glycolysis). When pyruvate is transferred into mitochondria to enter the Krebs Cycle, the speed of ATP resynthesis is slower but it can last for longer time if the intensity of exercise is medium. This process is often referred to as aerobic glycolysis (slow glycolysis). While glycolysis itself does not depend on oxygen, using the terms anaerobic and aerobic glycolysis is probably not much useful to describe these processes. The need of energy depends primarily on the intensity of motor activity. If energy needs to be used quickly, for instance during heavy training, pyruvate is primarily converted into lactate. If there is not such an urgent need of energy and oxygen is present in the cell in a sufficient amount, pyruvate can be further oxidated in mitochondria like for example in endurance training. The formation of Lactate The formation of lactate from pyruvate is catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. The normal range of lactate concentration in blood is 0,5 to 2,2 mmol/L at rest and 0,5 to 2,2 mmol for each kg of wet muscle. Lactate production increases with exercise intensity and appears to depend on muscle fiber type. The higher rate of lactate production by Type II muscle fibers may reflect a higher concentration or activity of glycolic enzymes than in Type I muscle fiber. Complete fatigue may occurs at blood concentrations between 20 and 25 mmol/L. Peak blood lactate concentration occur approximately 5 minutes after the cessation of exercise. Blood lactate accumulation is greater following high-intensity, intermittent exercise (e.g., resistance training and sprints) than following lower-intensity, continuous exercise. However, trained people experience lower blood lactate concentration than untrained people when exercising at an absolute workload (same resistance). Blood lactate concentration reflects lactate production and clearance. Lactate can be cleared by oxidation within the muscle fiber in which it was produced, or it can be transported in the blood to other muscle fibers to be oxidized. Lactate can also be transported in blood to the liver, where it is converted to glucose. This process is referred to as the Cori cycle. Lactate Threshold and Onset of blood Lactate Recent evidence suggests that there are specific break points in the lactate accumulation curve as exercise intensity increases. The exercise intensity or relative intensity at which blood lactate begins an abrupt increase above the baseline concentration has been termed the lactate threshold (LT). The LT represents an increasing reliance on anaerobic mechanisms. The LT corresponds well with the ventilatory threshold (breaking point in the relationship between ventilation and VO2) and is often used as a marker of the anaerobic threshold (see chapter 5). The LT typically begins at 50% to 60% of maximal oxygen uptake in untrained individuals and at 70% to 80% in trained athletes. The stated values are only informative due to big inter-individual differences among individual athletes. In practice as a rule, there is bigger increase in lactate at concentration between 2 and 8 mmol/L of blood. This concentration range is referred to as Maximal lacatate steady state (MLSS). Within the range of MLSS, the creation and utilization of lactate during motor activity is balanced. Oxidative (Aerobic) SystemThe oxidative system, the primary source of ATP at rest and during low-intensity activities, uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates. Following the onset of activity, as the intensity of exercise increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During aerobic exercise of high-intensity, energy is mostly gained from carbohydrates, provided there is enough of them. Glucose and Glycogen Oxidation The oxidative metabolism of blood glucose and muscle glycogen begins with glycolysis. If oxygen is present in sufficient quantities, the end product of glycolysis, pyruvate, is not converted to lactate but is transported to the mitochondria, where it is taken up, enters the Krebs cycle (slow glycolysis) and subsequently it gets to electron trasport chain (ETC) in order to create ATP from ADP. The production of ATP during this process is referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. Fat Oxidation Oxidative energy system can use fats as a source of energy. Triglycerides stored in fat cells can be broken down by an enzyme sensitive lipase. This releases free fatty acids from the fat cells into the blood where they circulate and enter muscle fibres, enter the Krebs Cycle directly and subsequently the electron transport chaing (ETC) in order to create ATP from ADP. Creating ATP in this way is also called oxidative phosphorylation. Figure 6 Overview of energy systems in human body Legend: ATP- Adenosine triphosphate, AMP-Adenosine monophosphate, ATP-CP- Phosphagens systém, FADH- Flavin adenine dinucleotide, NADH-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, ETC-Electron transport chain Creation of energy and energy systems capacity Total energy gained from oxidation of one glucose molecule is approximately 40 ATP. Glykolysis consumes either 2 ATP (if it start with blood glucose) or 1ATP (if it starts with glycogen), so net creation of ATP is 40 – 2 = 38, or 40 – 1 = 39 respectively. Total enerfy gained from oxidation of one (18-carbon) triglyceride molecule is 463 ATP. Other triglycerides which contain different number of carbons, produce more or less ATP. Creating ATP through the above energy systems differs in its ability to supply energy for activities of different intensity and duration. In general, there is an inverse relationship between a given energy system’s maximum rate of ATP production (i.e., ATP produced per unit of time) and the total amount of ATP it is capable of producing over a long time. As a result, the phosphagen energy system primarily supplies ATP for high-intensity activities of short duration (e.g., 100 m dash), the glycolytic system for moderate to high intensity activities of short to medium duration (e.g., 400m dash), and the oxidative system for low intensity activities of long duration (e.g., marathon). The extend to which each of the three energy system contributes to ATP production depends primarily on the intensity of muscular activity and secondarily on duration. At no time, during either exercise or rest does any single energy system provide the complete supply of energy. Table 1 Effect of Event Duration and Intensity on Primary Energy System Used
Table 2 Rankings of Rate and Capacity of ATP Production
Note: 1 = fastest/greatest; 5 = slowest/least Substrate depletion and repletionEnergy substrates are molecules that provide starting materials for bioenergetic reactions, including phosphagens (ATP and creatine phosphate), glucose, glycogen, lactate, free fatty acids and amino acids. Phosphagens Phosphagens concentrations in muscle are more rapidly depleted as a result of high intensity anaerobic exercise. Creatine phosphate can decrease markedly (50-70%) during the first stage (5-30 seconds) of high intensity exercise and can be almost eliminated as a result of very intense exercise to exhaustion. Postexercise phosphagen repletion can occur in relatively short period. Complete resynthesis of ATP appears to occurs within 3 to 5 minutes, and complete creatine phosphate reshynthesis can occur within 8 minutes. Glycogen Limited stores of glycogen are available for exercise. Approximately 300 to 400g of glycogen are stored in the body’s total muscle and about 70 to 100g in the liver. Relatively constant blood glucose concentrations are maintained at very low exercise intensity (below 50% maximal oxygen uptake); as duration increases beyond 90 minutes, blood glucose concentrations fall, but rarely below 2.8 mmol/L. Long-term exercise (over 90minutes) at higher intensities (above 50% of maximal oxygen uptake) may result in substantially decreased blood glucose concentration. Hypoglycemic reactions may occur in some people with exercise-induced blood glucose values of less than 2.5 mmol/L. After finish of this exercises must be repletion carbohydrates. Repletion of glycogen (glycogen is compound from molecules glucose) during recovery is relates to postexercise carbohydrate ingestion. Repletion appears to be optimal if 0.7 to 3.0 g of carbohydrates per kg of body weight is ingested every 2 hours following exercise. Muscle glycogen may be completely replenish within 24 hours provided that sufficient carbohydrate is ingested. Fats Source of energy for a longer activity. In human body, there is a 5-20 kg store in hypodermic fat which, in theory, can last for an activity of unlimited duration. Metabolic specificity of trainingAppropriate exercise intensities and rest intervals can permit the ,,selection,, of specific energy systems during training for specific athletic events. Using interval to train specific energy systems shows table 3. Table 3 Using Interval to Train Specific Energy systems
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Indicators of exercse load provide information on the condition of organism during training activity. They are sensitive to changes in the size of load. Among the indicators, there are:
Heart RateHear rate represents the most accessible indicator of heart-circulatory system load. It is most sensitive to any increase in intensity and increase in resistance. Hear rate represents a reliable magnitude for judging load intensity. With increasing load, e.g. in case of gradual increase in speed of running, hear rate increases. With increased load, increase heart rate of elite athletes is much slower than with athletes at a lower performance level due to better level of training (figure 7). Based on increasing training, there appear a number of structural and functional changes in the organism. Structural changes of the heart muscle during long-term loading directly affect heart rate. As a result of long-term and systematic loading, the heart chambers get larger and the strength of myocardium gets better. The more the heart got adapted with training, the lower its rate while loaded is. Thus, resting heart rate of well-trained athletes is much lower than untrained individuals. The heart rate of an untrained person is approximately 70 beats per minute while the heart rate of a well-trained athlete is as low as 35 beats per minute. This phenomenon is referred to as bardicardia. In comparison with men, the heart rate of women is usually higher. Figure 7 Example of increase in heart rates of elite and novice athletes Heart rate is affected by a number of factors. The most prominent of these are:
Age and sex Resting heart rate tells about the condition of vegetative nervous system and the level of training sensitively. Resting heart rate is usually taken palpably in the morning after wake-up in lying position for a period of 10 seconds. The value taken is multiplied by six. Resting hear rate of children is usually about 10 beats per minute higher than in adults. Maximal heart rate lowers generally with age. The following formula can be used to tell informative maximal heart rate: HRmax = 220 - age ± 15 beats/min Using the values of maximal heart rate, individual training zones for developing endurance can be inferred (see chapter 7). Figure 8 Relationship between maximal heart rate and age Size of heart As a result of repeated systematic loading, the heart (heart volume) grows bigger. Changes in the volume of the heart start to be manifested after eight weeks of regular training with weekly training volume of more than 10 hours. The size of heart is assessed with heart quotient (heart volume/kg). If heart quotient exceeds the value of 13 in men and 12 in women, we refer to it as “sports heart”. With one beat, a trained heart can deliver a bigger amount of blood into the bloodstream and therefore it can work in lower rate at the same load than untrained heart. Sports performance Resting heart rate or heart rate during a familiar competition load tells about the current level of training. Decrease in heart rate at a comparably same training load is a sign of increase in performance. Example: if I run on a treadmill regulary at the same speed, the level of my individual performance will rise gradually with this kind of load. Better performace is manifested in lower heart rate if compared with the condition before the start of regular training. Health condition Resting heart rate provides information on important physical changes which realte to health condition. If resting heart rate increases by more than 8 beats per minute during training period and the athlete is unwilling to be exposed to further training due to a feeling of exhaustion, it is a sign of illness. LactateLactate as lactate acid represents a significant load indicator. It cannot be measured as easily during training as heart rate (e.g. palpably or with heart rate monitor). Lactate can be diagnosed in laboratory conditions, e.g. in Ostrava University Human Motion Diagnostic Centre. In human body, lactate is constantly present in the concentration of 0.5-2.2 mmol/l (see chapter 4). When lactate appears, it is always a sign of overload of aerobic energy repletion and the start of anaerobic metabolism. Surplus appears with motor activities of maximum or sabmaximum intensity. An increased level of lactate starts to be manifested at the level of 50% to 60% of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) in untrained individuals, and at the level of 70% to 80% in trained athletes. According to the amount of lactate in blood and depending on the intensity of motor activity, the dominan system of energy repletion can be estimated: < 2 mmol/l aerobic (slow glycolysis, oxidative system) 3 – 7 mmol/l aerobic-anaerobic (slow glycolysis, fast glycolysis) > 7 mmol/l anaerobic (fast glycolysis, phosphagen system) Lactate concentration in blood does not reach maximum values immediately after finishind motor activity but it keeps increasing even afterwards. As a rule, maximum value of lactate in blood is reached between the third and tenth minutes of rest. Oxygen consumptionMaximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) represents the ability of the organism to receive oxygen, transport and use it. Maximal oxygen consumption is expressed in units (ml/kg/min) or in units of absolute consumption (L/min). In training practice, aerobic capacity is used which is expressed in v % VO2max. Aerobic capacity expresses what share of maximal oxygen consumption is used for aerobic energy repletion. Functionally, it means to work as long as possible in a steady state, within prevailing aerobic mode without significant accumulation of lactate in muscles. During a race, the best endurance athletes are able to work for 10-15 minutes at the level of 95-98 % VO2max, with longer activities lasting 20-40 minutes at the level of 90 – 95 % and in a race which exceeds one hour, usually below 90 % of maximal aerobic performance. In ordinary population, the average value of maximal oxygen consumption is around 45 ml/kg/min in men and 35 ml/kg/min in women. Top elite athletes exceed VO2max values 78 ml/kg/min in men and 68 ml/kg/min in women. In performance sports, the value of VO2max should be as close to the above values as possible. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER)Energy consumption is related to the intensity of motor activity. With increasing load, energy consumption increases and so does oxygen consumption. The ration of eliminating carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen intake (O2) makes respiratory exchange ratio (RER). On the basis of measured values of RER, it can be estimated which energy substrate is currently used as a source of energy. Table 4 offers an overview of the values of respiratory exchange ratio. Table 4 Respiratory exchange ratio in different kind of metabolism
Load indicators dynamicsLoad indicators (heart rate, VO2max, lactate) are very much sensitive to change in load intensity. For better understanding, it is good to imagine a runner on a running ergometer who will be subject to gradual increase in speed of the ergometer in regular intervals. Heart rate will gradually increase depending on the speed of running up to the value of critical inentsity. Heart rate is not further increased beyond the value of critical intensity. The rising of the heart rate curve will be the slower, the more trained the runner is. Heart rate curve will steadily rise up to the value of critical intensity. Lactate curve will first be kept at the same level which is a proof that energy repletion is done in aerobic way (slow glycolysis, aerobic system). From a certain point where aerobic processes do not suffice on, anaerobic processes of energy repletion (fast glycolysis) are employed more significantly. This is manifested in steep rise of the lactate curve. Load indicators dynamics is presented in Figure 9. Figure 9 Load indicators dynamics during loading Legend: VO2max- maximal oxygen consumption, HR- heart rate, AT- anaerobic treshold, KR-kritical intensity Using load indicators in practice The above indicators are able to be diagnosed in laboratory conditions. Spiroergometry represents a method suitable for diagnostics. Figure 10 presents graphic output of spiroergometrical examination in Ostrava University Human Motion Diagnostic Centre. Figure 10 Output date of spiroergometrical examintion (man, 22 years of age) Legend: AT-anaerobic treshold values, MAX-maximal values, VO2/kg- maximal oxygen consumption, HR- heart rate, RER-respiration exchange ratio Example: during spiroergometrical examination, man (22 years of age) reached maximal values at the load of 482 W (set by speed and the angle of runningh ergometer), maximal heart rate 188 beats/min, maximal oxygen consumption 69.3 ml/kg/min and respiratory exchange ratio 0.98. For training preparation, the most important information is contained in AT column (anaerobic treshold). Hear rate value of 175 beats/min expresses the value of anaerobic threshold. Motor activity of intensity below 175 beats/min shifts training to the area of dominant aerobic metabolism. On the other hand, motor activity of intensity over 175 beats/min shifts training to the area of dominant anaerobic metabolism. Heart rate can easily be observed during training through heart rate monitors. Page 4
The ability to resist external resistance with muscle contraction represents a basic principle of developing the complex of strength ability. Muscle contraction is conditioned by many factors (see chapter 10). If there is no visible movements of body segments during muscle contraction, this is referred to as static strength (e.g. holding tim in squat when thighs are held horizontally to the ground). On the other hand, if muscle contraction causes a visible movement of body segments by stretching (excentric muscle contraction) or by shortening the muscle (concentric muscle contraction), it is referred to as dynamic strength (e.g. mutual movement of forearm and upper arm during benchpress exercise). The dynamic strength can further be divided into partial manifestations of dynamic strength: Maximal strength is manifested by overcoming high or even limit external resistance at a slow speed with a specific muscle group usually in one repetition (e.g. in benchpress). Explosive strength is manifested by overcoming low external resistance or weight of own body with maximal acceleration in single (acyclic) movement of participating segments (e.g. in throws, or take-offs). Reactive strength is an ability to carry out muscle performance in motor activities which use stretch shortening cycle (SSC) with duration up to 200ms from beginning. Endurance strength is manifested by repeated overcoming relatively low resistance at slow speed and multiple cyclic movements (e.g. cross-country skiing, sculling etc.) The above abilities are related to focus and effect of strength training. Among the most important effects of strength training, there are:
Strength development is understood as an improvement in absolute or relative values of overcome external resitance at constant number of repetitions for specific muscle groups or exercises. Muscle hypertorphy development represents increase in crosscut of active muscle fibre. Net power output development at acyclic movement means improvement of optimum combination of speed of applied strength for dominant muscle groups in specific motor activities. Net power output development at cyclic movement means improvement of optimum combination of speed of applied strength for dominant muscle groups in specific motor activities for a necessarilly long period. Muscle endurance development represents improvement in strength manifestation of specific muscle groups in activities that last for a relatively long period without declining intensity. Each manifestation of dynamic strength is different in its specific parameters. It is possible to differentiate among three essential specific parameters:
In any strength manifestation, one of the parameters is always dominant. The relationship among specific parameters with regard to the effects of strength training is presented in Figure 11. Figure 11 Relationship among specific parameters with regard to the effects of strength training. Development of strength and hypertrophy are close to maximal strength characteristics. Net power output development at acyclic movement is similar to explosive strength characteristics and net power output development at cyclic movement is close to fast strength. Muscle endurance development is similar to endurance strength characteristics. Methods of strength developmentMethod of strength development arise from the above statements. There are many criteria for classifying individual methods of strength development. For the needs of this paper, we have chosen a classification which follows the criterion of the size of the resistance which is being overcome and velocity of the movement of specific muscle group which is being performed. Figure 12 presents an overview of the methods. Figure 12 Overview of methods of strength development Method of maximal effort is based on overcoming nearly limit resistance at slow speed in sets with small number of repetitions (usually 1-3x). Method of breakes of movement is based on braking over-maximal resistance at a speed as low as possible in sets of one repetition. Method of repeated effort is based on overcoming big but under-limit resistance at slow speed in sets with different numbers of repetitions (usually 8-12x). Very often, subsequent sets with either increasing or decreasing number of repetitions are used (so-called pyramids). Intermediate method is based on combination of static and dynamic contraction. During the movement of a specific exercise (weight squat) the movement is stopped for several times (2-4x, static contraction). Method of speed is based on overcoming low resistance at maximum speed possible in sets with different numbers of repetitions (usually 3-8). Plyometric method is based on the principle of stretch shortening cycle in which accumulated elastic energy is used for subsequent excentric contraction. As a rule, the weight of own body is used in sets of 2-5 repetitions. Method of strength endurance is based on overcoming low resistance at relatively slow speed with a big number of repetitions (usually < 15x). This method is often applied in the form of circular operation. Creating a Training ProgramCreating a program of strength training is a complex process which results from the following sequence of actions:
Step 1: Needs analysisEvaluation of the Sports The first task in a needs analysis is to determine the unique characteristic of the sport. This task includes consideration of the following attributes of the sport:
Training status of the Athlete An athlete current condition or level of preparedness to begin a new or revised program (training status) is an important consideration when designing training programs. An assessment of the athlete’s training background should examine the:
Table 5 Example of Classifying Resistance Training Status
Primary Resistence Training Goal The athlete’s test results, the movement and physiological analysis of the sport and the priorities of the athlete’s sport season determine the primary goal or outcome for resistance training program. An example of how the strength and conditioning professional may prioritize the resistance training emphases during the four main sport seasons is shown in table 6. Table 6 Example of General Training Priorities by Sport Season
Step 2: Exercise SelectionExercise selection involves choosing exercises for a resistance training program. Exercise Type (Core and Assistance Exercises) Exercise can be classified as either core or assistance based on the size of the muscle areas involved and their level of contribution to particular sport movement. Core exercises recruit one or more large muscle areas (i.e., chest, shoulder, back, hip, or thigh), involve two or more primary joints (multijoint exercises) for example power clean, and receive priority when one is selecting exercise because of their direct application to the sport. Assistance exercises usually recruit smaller muscle areas (i.e., upper arm, abdominals, calf, neck, forearm, lower back, or anterior lower leg), involve only one primary joint (single-joint exercise) for example bench press, and considered less important to improving sport performance. Sport-Specific Exercises The exercises selected for a resistance training program that focus on conditioning for a particular sport need be similar to the activities of that sport in their body and limb movement patterns, joint ranges of motion, and muscular involvement. Table 7 provides examples of resistance training exercises that relate in varying degrees to the movement patterns of various sports. Table 7 Examples of Movement-Related Resistance Training Exercises
Muscle Balance Exercises selected for specific needs of sports discipline should mainten balance of muscle strength between opposing muscle groups (e.g. biceps brachii a triceps brachii). While building a strength program, it is necessary to do it with regard to balanced strength development. Unbalanced strength development may lead to muscle disbalance (e.g. as it happens with disbalance between quadriceps and hamstrings). Step 3: Training FrequencyTraining frequency refers to the number of training sessions completed in a given time period. For a resistance training program, a common time period is one week. Training status The athlete’s level of preparedness for training, which was determined during the step 1, is an influential factor in determining training frequency because it affects the number of rest days needed between training sessions. Traditionally, three workouts per week are recommended for many athletes, as the intervening days allow sufficient recovery between sessions. As an athlete adapts to training and becomes better conditioned, it is appropriate to consider increasing the number of training days (see table 8). Table 8 Resistance Training Frequency Based on Training Status
More highly resistance-trained (intermediate or advanced) athletes can augment their training by using a split routine in which different muscle groups are trained on different days (see table 9). Table 9 Examples of Common Split Routines
Sport Season Another influence on resistance training frequency is the sport season. For example, the increased emphasis on practicing the sport skill during the in-season necessitates a decrease in the time spent in the weight room and, consequently, reduces the frequency of resistance training (see table 10). Table 10 Resistance Training Frequency Based on the Sport Season
Step 4: Exercise orderExercise order refers to a sequence of resistance exercises performed during one training session. Although there are many ways to arrange exercises, decision are invariably based on how one exercise affect the quality of effort or the technique of another exercise. Usually exercises are arranged so that an athlete’s maximal force capabilities are available to complete a set with proper exercise technique. Four most frequent approaches to exercise order in strenght training. Power, Other Core, Then Assistance Exercises Exercises for developing net power output such as the snatch, hang clean, power clean, and push jerk should be employed first during training. Only then, should there come other core exercises followed by assistance exercises. Of all these, exercises for developing net power output require the highest level of skill and concentration and they tend to be most affected by fatique. Once athletes start to be tired, they are more likely to use wrong technique and they are therefore subject to a higher risk of injury. Upper and Lower Body Exercises (Alternated) One method of providing the opportunity for athletes to recover more fully between exercises is to alternate upper body exercises with lower body exercises. This arrangement is especially helpful for untrained individuals who find that completing several upper or lower body exercises in succession is too strenuous. Also, if training time is limited, this method of arranging exercises minimizes the rest periods required between exercises and maximized the rest between body areas. If the exercises are performed with minimal rest periods (20-30 seconds), this method is also referred to as circuit training. "Push" and "Pull" Exercises (Alternated) Another method of improving recovery and recruitment between exercises is to alternate pushing exercise (e.g., bench press, shoulder press, and triceps extension) with pulling exercises (e.g., lat pulldown, bent-over row, biceps curl). This push-pull arrangement ensures that the same muscle groups will not be used in two exercises (or sets, in some cases) in succession, thus reducing fatigue in the involved muscles. The alternation of push and pull is also used in circuit training programs and is an ideal arrangement for athletes beginning or returning to a resistance training program. Supersets and Compound Sets Other methods of arranging exercises involve having athlete perform one set of a pair of exercises with little to no rest between them. Two common examples are referred to as super sets and compound sets. A superset involves two sequentially performed exercises that stress two opposing muscles or muscles areas (i.e., agonist and its antagonist). For example, an athlete perform 10 repetitions of barbell biceps curl exercise, sets bar down, then goes over to the triceps pushdown station and performs 10 repetitions. A compound set involves sequentially performing two different exercises for the same muscle group. Step 5: Training Load and RepetitionLoad is most simply referred to as the amount of weight assigned to an exercise set and is often characterized as the most critical aspect of a resistance training program. Relationship between Load and Repetitions The number of times an exercise can be performed (repetitions) is inversely related to the load lifted; the heavier the load, the lower the number of repetitions that can be performed. Load is commonly describes as either a certain percentage of a 1-repetition maximum (1 RM) - the greatest amount of weight that can be lifted with proper technique for only one repetition-or the most weight lifted for a specified number of repetitions, a repetition maximum (RM). For instance, if an athlete can perform 10 repetitions with 60 kg in the back squat exercise, her 10RM is 60 kg. It is assumed that the athlete provided a maximal effort. Table 11 shows the relationship between a submaximal load calculated as a percentage of the 1RM-and the number of repetitions than can be performed at that load. By definition, 100% of the 1RM allows the athlete to perform one repetition. Table 11Percent of the 1RM and Repetitions Allowed (%1RM-Repetition Relationship)
1RM and Multiple-RM Testing OptionTo gather information needed to assign a training load, the strength and conditioning professional has the option of determining athlete’s:
Once the actual 1RM is measured or estimated, the athlete’s training load is calculated as a percentage of the 1RM. Alternatively, a multiple-RM test may be performed based on goal repetitions, thereby eliminating computations or estimations. In many cases, the strength and conditioning professional will use a variety of testing option depending on exercises selected and the athlete’s training background. A common strategy for testing sufficiently conditioned athletes is to conduct a 1RM test in several core exercises and use multiple-RM testing for assistance exercises. Testing the 1RM This method of assessment is typically reserved for resistance trained athletes who are classified as intermediate or advanced and have exercise technique experience in the exercises being tested. Individuals who are untrained, inexperienced, injured, or medically supervised may not be appropriate participants for 1RM testing. 1RM testing protocol
If the athlete failed, provide a 2 to 4 minute rest period, then decrease the load by subtracting:
AND then go back to step 8. Continue increasing or decreasing the load until the athlete can complete one repetition with proper exercise technique. Ideally, the athlete’s 1RM will be measured within three to five testing sets. Estimating a 1RM When maximal strength testing is not warranted, testing with a 10RM load (and then estimating or predicting the 1RM) can be a suitable secondary option. The protocol for 10RM is similar to that for 1RM testing, bat each set requires 10 repetitions, not one. Multiple-RM Testing Based on Goal Repetitions A third option for determining training loads requires the strength and conditioning professional to first decide the number of repetition (i.e., the goal repetitions) the athlete will perform in the actual program for the exercise being tested. For example, if the strength and conditioning professional decides that the athlete should perform six repetitions for the bench press exercise in the training program, the multiple/RM testing protocol should have will result in six repetitions (6RM). Assigning Load and Repetitions Based on the Training GoalThe training goal is attained when the athlete lifts a load of a certain percentage of the 1RM for specific number of repetitions. The number of repetitions and percentage of the 1RM shows table 12. Table 12 Load and Repetition Assignments Based on the Training Goal
If the athlete can perform two or more repetitions over his or her assigned repetition goal for a given exercise in the last set in two consecutive workouts, weight should be added to that exercise for next training session. For example, strength and conditioning professional assigns three sets of 10 repetitions in the bench press exercise and the athlete performs all 10 repetitions in all set. After several workout sessions, the athlete is able to complete 12 repetitions in third (last) set for two consecutive workouts. In the following training, the load for that exercise should be increased. Examples of load increases shows table 13 (for training programs with load volumes of approximately three sets of 5 to 10 repetitions). Table 13 Examples of Load Increases
Step 6: VolumeVolume is to the total amount of weight lifted in a training session, and a set is a group of repetitions sequentially performed before the athlete stops to rest. Repetition-volume is the total number of repetitions performed during a workout session, and load-volume is the total number of set then multiplied by the weight lifted per repetition. For example, the load-volume for two sets of 10 repetitions with 50 kg would be expressed as 2 x 10 x 50 kg. Training volume is directly based on the athlete’s resistance training goal. Table 14 provides a summary of guidelines for the number of repetitions and sets commonly associated with strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance training programs. Table 14 Volume Assignments Based on the Training Goal
Step 7: Rest PeriodThe time dedicated to recovery between sets and exercises is called the rest period or interest rest. The length of the rest period between sets and exercises is highly dependent on the goal of training, the relative load lifted, and the athlete’s training status (if the athlete is not in good physical condition, rest period initially may need to be longer than typically assigned). The recommended rest period lengths for strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance programs are shown in table 15. Table 15 Rest Period Length Assignments Based on The Training Goal
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Endurance sports are activities which are performed during longer time interval and which prevailingly use aerobic metabolism involvement. Aerobic metabolism prevails during physical exercise which is longer than than 2-3 minutes at a low, middle or submaximal intensity load. Exercies used are usually locomotions or repeated cyclic movements. Many scientific works proved that aerobic endurance may last for a longer time before fatique appears and that it can last even in the state of fatique. Also recovery rates are highly related to quality of endurance abilities and faster recovery allows the athlete to shorten rest intervals within and between training sessions and increase overall training load. The most recognized model of endurance abilities physiology is the Cardiovascular/Anaerobic model, initially suggested by British physiologists A.V. Hill and associates in the mid-1920s. This model basically posits that a lack of oxygen in working muscles is what ultimately limits exercise performance. The cause of fatigue is primarily in cardiorespiratory system and utilization of oxygen. Most adherents to this model use the terms of VO2max, lactate threshold, and running economy when discussing aerobic or endurance training or physiology. Thanks to the new knowledge’s from this field of exercise physiology were made several new models from various points of view, e.g Neuromuscular fatigue model, Muscle trauma model, Biomechanical model, Thermoregulatory model, etc. Every of these models have wanted to supplement the initial model of Hill. The most complex revised physiological model proposed Nakes (2002) as a Central Governor Model. He draw from the original cardiovascular anaerobic model and four additional models that regulate short-time, maximal or long-time submaximal exercise. The basis of this idea is that fatigue is caused by CNS, which is not able to activate muscles to following activities or activities on a desired level. The brain protects the body by regulating power output during any form of exercise with the ultimate goal of maintaining homeostasis and protecting life. Muscle fibre power output is not regulated by factors in the muscle itself but in the brain based on continuous information from senses of the whole body. Fatigue is a relative process and as a consequence of it the exercise intensity is constantly changed during exercise as the brain either employs additional fibres to increase power output or to decrease fibre activation to adjust power output (energy) based on its calculations. The quality of endurance performance is limited by a number of factors out of which the most important are those which are related primarily to oxygen transport, energy utilization (cardiorespiratory system, blood volume, total mass of haemoglobin, oxidative enzymes, fat utilization etc.) and to neuromuscular function and economy of movement (quality of CNS and peripheral nerves, strength, speed, endurance, coordination, technique, performance) and quality of this factors can be called a physiological profile of an athlete. For training needs, endurance can be divided into four groups according to dominant metabolism which supplies energy to muscles:
Aerobic and anaerobic threshold As we proceed from walking to jogging and further to running and sprinting, we gradually employ slow and then fast muscle fibres. The start of the exercise involves mostly aerobic energy system, than slowly anaerobic system is activated until it finally becomes dominant, the fibers create lactit acid (LA) the increase in which causes an unpleasant feeling in the muscles and we are forced to slow down or stop. Aerobic threshold (AT) and anaerobic threshold (ANT) represent for us a transition zone which means increasing share of anaerobic energy metabolism. AT defines the top of easy training load and is defined as the point where LA begins to rise, usually around the level of 2-3 mmol/L. ANT is the point beyond which LA levels rise steeply. Such a range is called maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) and can vary between 3-8 mmol/L depending on every individual. An athlete can move for several hours at AT, but beyond ANT fatique appear quickly. It is the upper limit for utilizing lactate from the muscle and transition zone in which fibers of the II type (fast fibers) get involved more and more. With proper training system, it is possible to increase the intensity or velocity at the level of both thresholds. The level of ANT is highly related to success in events lasting for 15 minutes or more, such as longer running, swimming, cross country-skiing, rowing or cycling and is important for all endurance sports. Energy System of Endurance PerformanceEndurance performance is a process of long-time static or dynamic contractions of various muscles, which requires a perfect transfer of neural signals from the motor cortex (CNS) to the muscles, which have to be supplied with great amount of energy. During endurance activities, both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems (depending on the type of sport) are made use of. The closer to two minutes the duration of loading is, the lower the aerobic metabolism share in overall performance is; and the longer the duration is, the more dominant the aerobic system becomes. Table 16 Proportion of the share of anaerobic and aerobic metabolism during time at maximal movement intensity.
Anaerobic energy systemThis system is the dominant contributor in exercises of high intensity lasting from 20-30s to 100 – 120s. However, with intensive activity in duration of about 2 minutes, both energy systems are balanced and with increasing time, the portion of anaerobic system decreases and for example during high intensity exercises lasting for 4-6 minutes its portion is still high, of 20-30%. Anaerobic energy system (fast glycolysis) is the term for non-oxidative decomposition of glycogen, which is not very effective. This way restores a small amount of ATP (3 units for each molecule of glucose) while producing a by-product, lactic acid (LA). Accumulating LA reduces muscle force, makes muscle contraction more difficult and leads to fatigue. Optimizing efficiency of anaerobic metabolism is required for sports such as mid-distance events in track and field for 800 and 1,500 meters, 200 meter swimming, 200 and 500 meter canoeing, 500-1,500 meter speed skating, most events in gymnastics, alpine skiing etc. Aerobic energy systemAerobic energy system (oxidative system) is the primary energy source for events ranging from two-three minutes to over several hours (typical endurance sports and activities). Aerobic metabolism starts working slower and it takes 60-80 second to start producing sufficient amount of energy for ATP resynthesis because at this time interval, cardiorespiratory system starts to develop slowly into higher efficiency the and muscles start to be better supplied with oxygen which makes efficient ATP creation possible through oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Maximal output of these systems is reached after several minutes of maximal effort with regard to given intensit. Adaptation to Aerobic LoadThe system of endurance training is a complex process which has to respect the basic natural relations and biological adaptation (training stimuli, stress) with the help of training load to reach a higher level of fitness. The strategy for endurance development draws on from basic adaptation cycle, training or performance development or such stages which form the contents on training process during whole-year training macrocycle. Thanks to systematic aerobic load, the athlete is able to work at higher intensity of load, prolongs the duration of exercise and works more efficiently. Body adaptations which are in progress with the help of endurance training can be either acute or long-term in nature. Acute reaction to aerobic load brings about adaptations which influence the process of energy transfer and reserves and working capability of a muscle. The time of the first reaction with the help of periodic stimuli lasts from several days to weeks. This stage includes the optimization of ATP resynthesis connected with respective homeostatic responses, activation of oxygen transfer, use of energy reserves and better coordination of working muscles, and basic morpho-functional changes in muscles. During load of lower intensity, an athlete is able to resist fatigue, train, practise or exercise for a longer time; his or her coordination gets better, recovery improves, energy stores increase and movement effectiveness grows. Adaptation to training stimuli of the same load is manifested mainly by lower heart rate (HR), blood pressure and respiratory rate. Structural and functional changes which appear during prolonged time intervals in ordinary training are related to long-term adaptation. The result of endurance or aerobic training is for instance increased concentrations of myoglobin and haemoglobin, activity of mitochondrial enzymes, increased respiratory volume and oxygen transfer (bigger aerobic volume and performance) or increased heart performance. Main cellular and morpho-functional adaptations are for example visible in bigger size and number of mitochondria, capillar density and heart muscle adaptation. Thanks to aerobic endurance training, the volume of blood increases by 10-15 %, which means the average volume of blood increases from 5 liters to 5.5-6 liters. The quality of heart performance improves, which means that blood volume per minute pumped into circulation by the hear increases; this is related to better aerobic capacity and performance. Respiratory system performance improves, which ensures more air in smaller number of inflations, mainly thanks to bigger volume of a single inflation. A long-term type of reaction is mainly adaptation to specific performance, which lasts from several months to several years. After frequently repeated training stimuli, changes in the athlete’s body appear (the athlete’s body contains less hypodermic fat, body posture improves), muscles get stronger, during load of high intensity less lactic acid is accumulated, resting heart rate decreases, resting blood pressure decreases and both overall fitness and psychic reaction to load improve. Training endurance abilitiesThe achievement of personal maximal performance in endurance sports is a long-term process. The most of top endurance athletes are aged over 25. The development of endurance involves a long training process of big volume with gradually increasing quality. Systematic and regular endurance training usually starts around the age of 13-15 years and the individual top performance can be reached after 12–15 years of a very demanding training process. Aerobic endurance is normally developed before 13-15 years of age but it should be mainly with the help of non-specific means, exercises and non-intensive methods as a part of general fitness development and training of a young athlete. Therefore, the main aims of endurance aerobic training are the improvement of personal limiting factors, which means mainly improving personal physiological profile and motor abilities. Simultaneously with these important goals of aerobic training, race technique and tactics experience must be improved and psychic qualities must be fixed. These goals of training are achieved with the help of the right type of training, proper training system, and methods and means of training. Every biological improvement caused by training stimuli is carried out in cycles. The most benefits of a specific training process come together with load that matches the orginial condition with duration around six weeks. After six weeks, it is necessary to increase volume, intensity and frequency of training load, because a training program which is exceeds six weeks becomes less effective after this period. Without increasing load and variability of training, this process cannot effectively continue and the development of training and performance is slow. This six-week period is divided to four stages. During first stage (up to about 10 days), the improvement of movement coordination is prevalent. During the second stage, energy store inreases, the performance of energy system improves and changes in the muscle structure begins (up to about 20 days). After rebuilding muscle structure, it is necessary to renew neural control of motor ability on a higher level. This is the aim of the third stage, which is finished till about 30 days. During the last stage, many systems get coordinated on a higher level such as cardiorespiratory system, vegetative neural system, hormonal system, centre of thermoregulacy, or immunity system. The fourth stage completes the whole cycle of optimal benefit of the respective training load and brings this six-week period to an end. Zones of Training Intensity in Sports TrainingEvery coach should know zones for anaerobic or aerobic training. Organizing the system of loading into specific zones of training intensity is usual interest of coaches. They use several zones of load intensity to stress the importance of training in the whole range of energy systems. The number and range of training zones have been recommended in coaching literature and a standardized scale consists of up to six different intensity zones. To develop training and performance of endurance athletes, it is recommended to make use of four intensity zones, which cover entire training needs. It is important to use a single system of intensity zones following the specifics of a given sport. Intensity Zone 1Within this zone, load intensity is under anaerobic threshold (ANT) and it should help to improve athlete´s aerobic metabolism, which vital in most sports, especially those in which oxygen consumption represents a limiting factor of performance. Among these sports, there are for example medium- and long-track running, swimming, sculling, cross-country skiing, cycling events etc., but it is important also for other sports such as a games. Many coaches and authors call it aerobic threshold training (AT), which develops basic functional efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system and the economy of metabolic system and increases the capacity to resist stress during effort which lasts for a longer time. The purpose of aerobic threshold training is to increase aerobic energy capacity through using a high volume of work without interruption at a constant or alternating pace. Average LA concentration is 2-3 mmol/l; a typical range is between 50 – 70 % of VO2max or 70 – 75 % HRmax. The low intensity load makes up the vast majority of a training process volume (about 70-75 % HR). It is important for achieving desirable functional improvements that form basis for training of higher intensity. Appropriate training methods of developing basic endurance within intensity zone 1 are both uninterrupted or long, slow distance methods and fartlek. An optimum period to improve aerobic performance is the preseason period, however, evens during pre-competition and race seasons, we need regular load of lower stimuli to keep aerobic metabolism on a required level. Aerobic compensatory training is also part of intensity zone 1. This intensity makes easier athlete´s recovery after competitions and high-intensity training which are typical of intensity zones 2 and 3. It means loading with very low intensity (about 50% of HRmax) and it can be planned for all stages of a macrocycle in order to eliminate metabolites from the system and to speed up the process of recovery and regeneration. It is training of active recovery and we can use cycling, running or swimming of low intensity for 20-40 min, which helps to speed up recovery. Training Intensity Zone 2This zone consists of training load which is equivalent to higher intensity of exercise but the rate of the diffusion of LA into blood is constant in relation to the rate of its removal. It is training with intensity in the area of anaerobic threshold. The main aim of the training is to improve the athlete’s ability to utilize higher LA production during long-term load, keep high intensity of load without accumulation of LA (for a period longer than 5 minutes). The ability to remove LA from blood circulation and transfer it to muscles to further use it as a source of energy is an adaptive reaction which postpones the start of fatique and improves performance. Intensity is around ANT or slightly below of above it, which means between 3 mmol/l LA and personal level of ANT. The range of load intensity is between 75-85 % VO2max or 80-93 % HRmax. This load helps to shift ANT curve towards higher speed of cyclic movement. Training within this zone can be further divided into two types: uninterrupted continuous or long, slow distance training and interval training, whereas both of them are of the same relative intensity. Load at the level of ANT through uninterrupted continuous or long, slow distance training and interval training are very much useful if we begin with specific endurence. This type of training together with more repetitions (between five and seven repetitions) can stimulate anaerobic metabolism without any significant accumulation of LA. This intensity is followed by hard training which is unpleasant and painful. Intensity zone 3The training of this intensity stimulates the increase of maximal oxygen consumption through increased need of oxygen transfer and the efectiveness of its utilization. During both training and competition, cardiorespiratory system, nervous and locomotive systems are very much stressed with load of such intensity. Better transfer of oxygen to muscle cells and especially better efficiency of oxygen utilization are important factors for better performance in sports in which the aerobic system is dominant or at least very important. The rate of LA diffusion into the blood starts to exceed the rate of utilization and the main physiological aim of training intensity zone 3 is to increase resistance to LA accumulation, the adaption to the increased creation of LA, better utilization of LA from working muscles and increasing physiological and psychological resistance to pain or spasm during training and demanding competitions. This type of load is often used towards the end of preseason and in first transition period to build the athlete’s maximum functional capacity and during competition period to maintain high level of performance. Load intensity within this zone should be between 85 % to VOpeak or 90 (93) - 100% of HRmax. The number of repetitions performed during one training session depends on the duration of the training: the longer the duration, the smaller number of repetitions. The main training method for developing this intensity zone is mainly the intermittent method. Training Intensity Zone 4Phosphagen energy system (ATP-CP) is dominant in all sports which require to exercise speed and explosiveness. Trainig of this intensity can improve and maintain short-time speed-time endurance. However, this intensity has its justification also in endurance training, primarily for developing movement economy, technical and tactic skills which make use of ATP-CP system as the source of energy. Athletes have to make use of very short intervals (not exceeding 20 seconds) of short and explosive exercises of intensity over 100 % effort with resting period long enough to fully recover the source of energy. The main training method is the intermittent method with sufficient resting period. Practical application of all intensity zones must be planned according to the athlete’s potential and performance, his or her resistance to load and according to the specific stage of the training process. The application of intensity zones to an athlete´s training is more familiar of individual sport coaches but it is valid for all sports. Frequency of training stimuliThe frequency of training stimuli is an important part of the training process and it very much affects the improvement of training and performance. The training stimulus which follows can be applied only in the period when the athlete’s body has been fully recovered from the preceeding intensive training unit. The variability of the types of load and active recovery during the whole macrocycle is therefore very important. The frequency of training stimuli is a variable in the training process which affects the improvement of aerobic performance, mainly during the first stage of systematic training of children, untrained individuals and young athletes. The basic frequency of training sessions at the beginning of a regular training process should be three times per wekk for children, less fit athletes or to maintain health. Performance endurance athletes need 5-7 training sessions per week and top athletes from 7 to 20 training sets. Basic Relationships between the Variables of Training LoadOptimum results of the training process can be achieved through systematic alternation of the training contents, the size of load (volume, intensity), training means, methods, frequency of stimuli, organisational forms etc. To make the development of performance gradual and systematic, it is necessary first to increase the frequency of stimuli, then we can slowly increase the volume of intensity and the last parameter which much be increased is load intensity. Training intensity is of lower significance at the beginning of regular training but training of higher intensity usually leads to improved specific performance, faster reaching better performance, for a short time though, if required training volume has not been mastered. Methods of Aerobic Endurance TrainingSystem of endurance training includes a number of methods which are suitable for developing different kinds of endurance. Every method has its own characteristic effect for development of specific preconditions. Some methods can have similar impact on the athlete’s adaptation provided we use it under similar conditions. The training methods for aerobic or anaerobic endurance development can be divided to several groups:
Uninterrupted MethodsThese methods include continous method and method of alternating intensity. Continuous method means load with constant level of intensity or speed. The load lasts usually for longer than 30 minutes (up to several hours). This method is used to develop basic (general) endurance, mixed aerobic-anaerobic metabolism, or to maintain the level of reached endurance adaptation. Load of lower intenisty (below 80-85 % HR max) is suitable to develop energy resources, improving the ability to supply working muscles with energy substrate for a long time and developing movement economy. Medium or submaximal intensity is used to increase speed at ANT level. High or submaximal intensity is used in testing, in check race or in testing the ability to maintain racing speed. The possibility to incrase VO2max is lower than when using different methods (e.g. interval training) but within training process for novices or children, even this method is able to help to improve this parameter, mainly during the initial months of regular training. Uninterrupted method of alternating intensity During uninterrupted load of alternating intensity, the athlete alternates, regularly or irregularly, different intensity and length of sections. Load intensity can vary from low to very high. The number, length and intensity of sections is usually planned. Intermittent MethodsThis group includes interval methods and repetition methods. The main difference between these methods is the condition of the athlete before starting the next unit. During interval training, another repetition starts with insufficient recovery of the athlete. During repetition training, another unit starts only with relative recovery after a longer pause between units. Interval method Interval training contains several load units of high intensity (from submaximal to maximal). As a rule, we distinguish between short, medium and long interval methods according to the time-period of load. Short intervals last between 45 and 60 seconds, medium from 1 to 3 minutes and long 3-5 minutes. Time for rest is relatively short. Resting period for short and medium interval lasts 60-90 seconds and for long interval it is approximately half of the time for which lasts one unit, or until HR decreases down to 120-130 beats per minute. It is recommended to spend the resting period with active acitve rest (walking, jogging etc.), which improves removal of LA from stressed muscles. Interval training has a great influence on cardiorespiratory system and it is the best way to increase the value of maximal oxygen consumption (aerobic perfromance and capacity). The main aim of interval training is preparation for specific competition load. The interval method is not suitable for children and it can be applied to the youth training only with great care. Children are not ready for anaerobic load of longer duration and the youth are only developing this ability. The incorporation of intervals into youth training can lead to very steep rise in performance development in relatively short time, which is followed by stagnation or decrease in performance, or can lead to the ovetraining. Examples of interval training: During natural interval, load lasts for 90 seconds and rest for 60-90 seconds or until HR is as low as 120 – 130 b.p.m. Extensive interval method recommends the load of submaximal load for 3-5 minutes followed by 3-5 minute rest. The impact of this type of interval training concerns mainly respiratory system and ANT level. Repetition method This type of training involves repetitions of several legs. The intensity of a repeated leg is most often at the competition pace lavel but it can also be submaximal speed or also slightly faster for a given distance. This training is not directly connected to development of VO2max, it is related to improving or maintaining race pace which is different for milers and 10-kilometer runners. These legs are usually longer than 5 minutes. Resting period fasts from 5 to 15 (or 20) minutes. FartlekThis method has originated in Swedish training system and it means the play with speed. Changes of load (intensity and length of legs) are included in training according to personal feelings of every athlete, natural conditions, profile of terrain etc. The content of fartlek is not usually given in advance. During training, the intensity or the length of legs changes irregularly. Minimum duration of fartlek training is 30 minutes. Another kind of fartlek has originated in Polish training school. Coach determines what training means, intensity and legs are to be included in training units. The place and time of being carried out during training is on the athlete’s decision. System of Endurance TrainingEndurance training is a process which can be divided into several parts. Each part covers certain specifics of endurance development. Performance of endurance athletes is based mainly on fitness factors and during training process, general fitness and general endurance are being developed first, followed by specific endurance. General endurance and general fitness It is started with general ability to resist fatique during physical activity but without any significant influence on sports performance. It is very useful for leisure sport activities, for non-elite athletes to maintain basic fitness or functional and energy systems. General endurance and general fitness on a good level is the basis for athletes to achieve better recovery, increase volume and intensity of training process or higher frequency of traning stimuli etc. This type of general fitness and general endurance can be improved with various cyclic movements such as walking, running, cycling, canoing, sculling or working out on specific fitness machines. Specific endurance It is an ability to resist fatique during specific sports movement for a longer time period; both with low intensity of load and during competitions with hight intensity of load. Training specific endurance is closely connected to maximum personal performance in a specific sport and training system must contain large-scale proportion of specific training means, methods and intensities. Stages of endurance training Within the training process of endurance development, periods or stages are usually planned during which the foundations for further improvements are established. The stages must focus on specific needs of each sport. With long-term endurance development (years), we have to apply step by step improving physical and physiological preconditions in time intervals of different duration (stages) during annual training process. The length of every stage depends on the specifics of each sport. General principles of endurance development in all sports are: successiveness, adequacy, suitable volume and intensity, and gradual impelementation of specific training procedures and methods. There are several models suitable for developing aerobic performance. During simple competition model (monocycle), the athletes develop endurance in three stages – general endurance, introductin to specific endurance and specific endurance. During a two peaks model (bi-cycle) with shorter periods, two stages with two periods are usually applied – development of basic endurance and development of specific endurance. Stages of general endurance During this stage, the athlete creates or maintains basic level of endurance which is necessary for further development. Athletes improve general or basic specific endurance and they are able to postpone the the start of fatique during long-time load of low intensity. This stage lasts from 6 weeks to 3 months, depending on the required level of adaptation and the kind of sport and it is in progress during transitory period and preseason of annual cycle. During this stage, any development or adjustment of training load must be carried out by increasing volume with low intensity load. This training regime does not expose the athlete to high level of effort of muscle or physiological system and the athlete trains mainly below individual ANT. This load induces glycogen depletion in the muscle, increase lipid metabolism and force the body to maintain or enhance the acquired functional adaptations within the cardiorespiratory or muscle system. The most suitable training methods in this stage are both uninterrupted methods and fartlek. Load should be mainly below 85 % of HRmax. This represents intensity zone 1 and partly also intensity zone 2. General and specific training means are usually balanced. The best training means is bipedal or quadrupedal movement such as cycling, running, walking, cross-country skiing, nordic walking, canoing, sculling or long-time working out on fitness machines. Stages of introduction to specific endurance The aim of this stage is to improve physiological adaptation of the athlete and focus on motor activities which are specific for a given sport. Aerobic endurance is still the main element of training although anaerobic activities start to be part of training program as well. Depending on the difficulty of motor structures and the rate of the athlete’s adaptation, this stage lasts from 6 weeks to 4 months depending on the kind of sport. At the beginning of this stage, higher volume of load remains and intensity starts to increase slowly. When required level of basic endurance is achieved, it is necessary to include a higher number of specific traning means and intensive methods of endurance development into training process in order to further improvement of training and performance. Now, the duration of stimuli (volume) gradually shortens until it finally reaches medium levels while load intensity can move within the area of individual ANT whereas some training units can exceed ANT. This should be applied with increasing frequency towards the end of this stage. All methods, both uninterrupted and fatlek and intermittent, are suitable. All intensity zones take part in this stage; within the initial part, the volume in zones 3 and 4 is small, but in the other part, the volume is increasing so that is possible to reach higher level of training and performance. During this stage, specific training means of the given sport become prevalent in training process. Stages of specific endurance In this stage, maximum potential of endurance performance of the athlete must be achieved. Intensity reaches the highest level possible. To further increase the volume of high-intensity training, we must decrease volume. Duration of training units or load must respect the specifics of the sport and training is focused on the dominant energy system. This stage can last approximately for 3-5 months, during preseason and competition season in annual training cycle. During this stage, high rate of specific and race training means are involved in the training process. The main recommended method for development and maintaining high level of aerobic performance is intermittent method. However, we never must forget to maintain good level of basic endurance through training units with load of lower intensity with the help of uninterrupted methods and fartlek. Page 6
There are different manifestation of speed in training, e.g. the speed of a sprinter in a 100-meter run, reached javelin release speed, maximum speed of the starting run of the athlete in a long-distance jump, the speed of changing position of the middle player from the middle part of the net into side area, break-free with the ball in basketball etc. Sports performance is conditioned by performing a given movement with maximum speed possible. External manifestation of the resulting speed of both cyclic movement and single-speed movement are always related to as fast carrying out of the movement as possible along defined specific track through muscle contraction. The specificity of movement is given by specific skill in the sports discipline. Manifestations of speed in sports are always characteristic in their maximum intensity. Acyclic movement (throws, casts) can be performed against slight resistance (up to 20 % 1RM). Cyclic movement (sprint) is usually performed without resistance without any significant change is direction. During cyclic movement, a significant change in direction can occur accompanied with decrease and subsequent increase in speed and movement frequency (movement of player with the ball in handball). In this case, it is specific manifestation of speed which is called agility. As far as the duration of the performance of specific motor activity is concerned, it is speed up to 15 seconds (duration exceeding 15 seconds is speed endurance). An independent part of speed abilities is represented by the scope of reaction speed. Reaction speed is manifested by speed as a reaction to a given stimulus (e.g. reaction to start-up shot in 100-meter sprint) and it is understood as time lasting from stimulus to the start of motor activity. Speed can generally be defined as an ability to reach high speed and frequency of cyclic, single-speed (acyclic) or combined movement through muscle contraction. Figure 13 Basic areas of speed abilities The most important areas of speed abilities from the point of view of sports training are represented in Figure 14. Figure 14 Significant areas of the complex of speed abilities Cyclic speed (locomotion speed) is understood as an ability to reach high frequency of cyclic movement through muscle contraction without any significant resistance in duration unitl 15 seconds. Single speed (acyclic speed) represents an ability to reach maximum speed of the movement without resistance or against slight resistance through muscle contraction. Agility is an ability to change direction of movement quickly; it is accompanied by sudden decrease and subsequent increase in acceleration and speed of the movement. Speed endurance is understood as an ability to maintain high speed of movement for a time period longer than 15 s or an ability to repeatedly produce high speed of movement with minimum resting period between individual repetitions. Reaction speed is an ability to react to a given stimulus as fast as possible. Development of speed is closely related to strength development; mainly to development of fast speed and reactive strength. To be able to perform a given motor task (motor ability), the athlete must apply strength as fast as possible. Strength is understood as a product of mass and acceleration. Strength which is necessary for performing movement is produced by skeletal muscle. Speed performed in sports is affected by three basic parameters:
Maximum value of strength impulse is importance in situations where it is necessary to apply a big amount of force in short time. A good example of this is sprint during which support and flight phases of the left and right lower limbs alternate regularly. During support phase, the runnes has only 0.1-0.2 seconds to take off from the surface do another flight phase. Within such short time, the athlete must applie as high rate of force development (RFD) as possible at take-off; whereas the maximum growth in force occurs only at times between 0.6 and 0.8 s. Te speed of force development is presented in Figure 15. Training of maximum rate of force development within limited time interval in specific sports skills is an important part of training performing speed. Figure 15 Rate of force development Net power output plays an important role in training performing speed. For instance, in javelin throw, the length of throw depends on two basic parameters: release angle and release speed. Choosing release angle is a matter of thechnique of this skill. Reached release speed is related to reached net power output. The athlete must be able to reach maximum net power output with mass defined in advance (in this case it is the weight of the javelin). Net power output results from the relationship of velocity of movement and force which causes the movement. The relationship between velocity of movement and the acting force is indirect. Maximal force is reached at a low velocity and on the other hand, at maximum velocity, the acting force is small. In both of these extreme situations, net power output is low. Maximal net power output is a compromise between velocity of movement and the amount of acting force. The athlete must act on the javelin with optimum force which ranges, as described in theory, around 40% of maximal force and around 30% of maximal velocity. The above relationship is presented in Figure 16. Another example can be bench press exercise. It has been proved that for the training method of dynamic effort, load within the range of 30-50 % 1RM is most appropriate for professional football players. With such load, the players reached maximal net output and therefore the load is most appropriate from the point of view of traning stimulus and subsequent adaptations. Figure 16 Relationship between applied force and the velocity of movement The principle of training maximal net power output is an important part of training performing speed. In sports disciplines such as sprint, the athlete must reach maximum performance with the weight of his/her own body. In cast disciplines like javelin throwing, the athlete must reach maximum performance with weight of the tool defined in advance. For instance, for a squat with jump performed by a discus thrower, the load of 30 % of maximal force was determined as optimum to reach maximal net power output. This phenomenon is used in training where it is possible to make load parameters individual and optimum to reach maximal net power output for a specific exercise (e.g. bench press). Many motor skills contain the stretch shortening cycle (SSC). The principle of SSC is a combination of eccentric stretch and immediate concentric shortening of the muscle tendon complex during movement. With such a combination of movements, accumulated elastic energy during eccentric contraction is used. An example of this is landing after block in volleyball with subsequent move away from the net. At first, there is a stretch of the triceps surae and accumulation of elastic energy which is subsequently used while shortening during the first step away from the net. Motor skills which contain stretch shortenin cycle lead to improvements in mechanical efficiency of the movement, impulse of force and muscle power through elastic energy. Elastic energy applied during SSC positively affects muscle stiffness and neuromuscular activation. SSC is prevalent mainly in sports which include running, jumping, or other explosive changes in momentum or velocity. Development of speed abilities is one of the most difficult tasks of training. It is because speed ability is to a great extent affected by innate dispositions (only about 20 % can be affected by training). Movement velocity is determined by mutual relationships of individual factors. Key innate factors affecting speed abilities are as follows:
General parameters of load during speed development
Load intensity: Training performing speed is conditioned by maximum concentration on performed motor activity with maximum effort during the performance. If the motor activity is not performed with maximal intensity, there is no sense in carrying on with the training. Work interval: Work interval results first from the needs of specific sports performance and, second, it depends on selected development method. Rest interval: Sufficient rest interval during performing speed development is essential for:
Table 17 CP resynthesis depending on the duration of rest interval
Number of repetitions: The number of repetitions is determined by the moment of decrease in maximal intensity of the motor activity. If the trainees start to manifest signs of fatique, it is necessary to end speed training. Way of rest: During rest interval, it is recommended to employ additional movements of low intensity (walking, jog, trot, easy stretching etc.). An active way of rest keeps the activity of the central nervous system for further speed load. The most favourable conditions for developing “pure” speed come at the age of 12-13 when the basis of neural manifestations, force mobility, lability and speed of neural processes is being created. Further improvement in speed occurs due to improved technique and strength abilities development. Velocity of runningBipedal running is a ballistic mode of locomotion with an alternating flight phase and single-leg support phase (by comparison, walking is nonbalistic without flight phase, and the stance alternates between double and single support phase). Sprinting is a series of running strides that repeatedly launch the athlete’s body as a projectile at maximal acceleration or velocity (or both), usually over brief distances and durations. Running speed is the interaction of stride frequency and stride length. Differences between novice and elite athlete:
Stride frequency also tends to vary among individuals and generally seems to be more trainable than stride length. As the athlete accelerates to his or her maximum stride rate, ground contact time decreases from 0.2 second during acceleration to 0.1 second at top speed. The most basic aim of sprint training is to reach high stride frequency with optimum stride length in trajectory which can be desribed as explosive take-off with minumum vertical impulse. Methods of developing speed and agilityThe methods of developing speed can be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary. The methods must focus on key parameters which affect speed. Among the key parameters that influence speed, there are:
Primary MethodsThe primary method for developing speed is performing proper movement technique of a specific motor ability. The speed of performing an acquired skill increases depending on the quality of the skill. At the beginning of motor learning, the athlete should perform activities at submaximal speed to fix correct mechanism. As he or she gradually masters the skills, performence in the given task can come closer to or exceed full competition speed. Secondary MethodsSecondary methods include sprint resistance and sprint assistance. The aim is to develop special skills in modified performance conditions. Resistance method This method includes gravity-resisted running (e.g., uphill or upstair sprinting) or other means of achieving an overload effect (e.g., harness, parachute, or weighted vest). The objective is to provide resistance without arresting the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving explosive strength and stride length. In general, ≥10% changes in movement resistance have detrimental effects on technique. Assistance method Sprint assistance includes gravity-assisted running (e.g., downhill sprinting on a shallow 3-7°slope), high-speed towing (e.g., harness and stretch cord), or other means of achieving an overspeed effect. The objective is to provide assistance without significantly altering the athlete’s movement mechanics, primarily as a means of improving stride rate. Regardless of whether the athlete actually achieves overspeed or not, this method may also improve quality of effort during normal maximum-velocity sprinting by reducing the time and energy needed to accelerate. In general, apply assistance conservatively, exceeding maximum velocity by ≤10%. Contrast method It is based on the combination of resistance and assistance methods. Load under natural conditions is combined with load under difficult or on the other hand under easy conditions. Tertiary MethodsTertiary methods include flexibility, strength and speed-endurance training. Their aim is to develop general skills and abilities. Flexibility Flexibility represents an important condition for speed developing. Small joint scope and insufficient elasticity of skeletal muscles limits the athlete in maximum use of the overall capacity of the speed of a given movement. An example of this is insufficient stretching of the muscles of the back thigh the consequence of which will be limiting stride length while sprinting. An ability to fully stretch the leg before recovery stage is a predondition for reaching correct ready position on the groud and subsequently also landing. Inadequate flexibility may therefore result in incorrect foot posture, longer ground contact and bigger braking force while running. The issue of flexibility development is further discussed in Chapter 10. Strength Athletes must develop fast and reactive strength in order to maximise their speed and agility. This does not mean that they should only perform movements of low resistance and high speed during their training. The ability to reach high movement speed desires an ability to apply strength within the whole range of net muscle power output. Therefore, the program of strength traning must focuse on the whole strength-speed range (see chapter 6). Speed endurance The issue of speed endurance can be viewed from two different perspectives. Speed endurance can be understood as an ability to maintain high movement speed for a time period exceeding 15 s, for example in running disciplines in athletics (200-meter and 400-meter running) when the athlete is trained for performance in a single run (qualifying, finals) which is followed by a sufficient rest period; or it is possible to be understood as an ability to repeatedly produce high movement speed with minimum rest intervals between individual repetitions. This model appears for example in ice hockey, florball etc., when the player must be able to repeatedly produce maximum performance during the whole course of the game. Load interval (time spent in the pitch) and rest interval (time spent on substitutes bench) then follow from practical requirements of the specific sport. An appropriate method to develop this tupe of endurance is represented by interval methods. An example of interval methods for developing speed endurance according to the creterion of load duration follows: Speed endurance Load interval:6-20s(20s-2mins) Rest inteval:1:4(1:3) Load intensity:maximal(maximal) Way of rest:active(active) The presented parameters are only of informative nature; in practice, it is necessary to watch for the moment of decreasing maximal intensity of performing the motor activity. As soon as there is a decrease in intensity, it is necessary to end this type of load. Duration of rest interval is also informative; it depends on immediate level of training. It is good to watch for the decrease in heart rate. The next load interval can start once the value has decreased to 120-130 b.p.m. Developing Reaction SpeedIn sports, reaction speed is manifested in different situations (e.g. the reaction of a sprinter to start-up shot, the reaction of a goalkeeper in football to direct free kick, the reaction of the coxwain to a sudden gust of wind in yachting etc.). The speed of reaction is determined by the time (latency period) which lasts from the stimulus to initiating a motor response by skeletal muscles. In sports, there are reactions to simple stimuli when the athlete knows the form of the stimulus exactly in advance (start-up shot at 100-meter run) and on the other hand, ther eis reaction to selective stimuli when the athlete expects one of possible forms of the stimulus (reaction to direct free kick in football, selecting the direction of movement of the central blocker in volleyball depending on the direction of the pass). A goalkeeper expects the ball to head for the goal but does not know to which part of the goal the ball is heading. Stimuli can be divided according to receptor involved into accoustic (start-up signal), visual (flight of a ball) and tactile (gust of wind through the sheets). Training reaction speed draws from simulating specific raction situations of a specific sports discipline. To train reaction speed, the athlete must be fully concentrated on the task being performed and he or she must not be tired. Methods of developing reaction speedRepetition method The core of this method is repeated reactions to a given stimulus (e.g. reaction to start-up signal in swimming). Sensoric method The method broadens repetition method. The athlete attempts to subectively assess the duration of performing the reaction to a given stimulus. Method of reaction to selective stimulus A proper reaction to selective stimuli in sports games and resistance sports is often related to game experience and anticipation. An example of this is the reaction of the volleyball libero to the type of attack hit. Based on his or her experience, the player is able to anticipate the type and direction of intended attack following the clues provided by the movements of the opponent’s body. On the basis of his or her assumption, the player chooses the place of defense in field. A similar example can be found in resistance sports. A judo player attempts to anticipate the type and speed of the opponent’s entrance. The core of this method is to teach one’s trainees to gradually anticipate the opponent’s aim, thus gaining the most advantageous position for a reaction to difficult stimulus. Basic Principles of Speed Development
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Coordination ability means an ability to quickly and purposefully perform difficult spatio-temporal movement structures. Within this context, coordination abilities are understood as an externally visible manifestation of the control and regulation processes of the motor activity of the central nervous system. The complex of coordination abilities consists of a group of basic coordination abilities. Basic coordination abilities: Adaptive ability enables modifications of motor activity ob the basis of comparison or anticipation of new or changing conditions during performing motor activity. Balance ability is understood as an ability to keep body or its parts in a relatively stable position. Combinatory ability is understood as an ability to simultaneously put partial movements together into more complex movement structures. Kinesthetic diferentiation ability means an ability to realize kinematic and dynamic features of movement. Orientation ability is an ability to realize position of the body or its parts in space and time. Rhytm ability enables to grasp and motorircally express rhythm which which is externally determined or contained in the motor activity itself. Coordination abilities and affecting them are of twofold importance in sports:
The difference between technical preparation and development of coordination abilities:
Sensitive period for developing coordination is between 5 and 6 years of age (qualitative features grow: economy, fluency, precision) and around the age of 12; the highest values of agility indicators can be reached between 17 and 20 years of age. Developing coordination abilities includes:
Specialized training negatively affects development of new movements (due to focusing on a limited number of motor skills which are the contents on selected sports specialization. Principles and Procedures in Training Coordination AbilitiesMore demanding coordinatio exercises (activities requiring the activity of a bigger number of muscles, various movemets of both the body and limbs, moves in different directions and along different axles) are used for coordinatio abilities development. Mastered exercises are performed under chaning conditions because automated skills do not lead to further development of coordination abilities. A variation can be reached by:
Further:
Selecting exercises The wider the motor contents of a sports discipline is and the more complicated and faster locomotioin is (relocating in space) and the more difficult, faster and complex manipulation with tools or devices is (movemets of upper limbs), the bigger the requirements for coordination are. Selecting exercises in practice:
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Flexibility means to reach required or maximum joint rangle through muscle contraction or through the action of external forces. Each sports discipline requires a certain rangle of flexibility necessary for optimum performance of motor skills. Gymnasts need much bigger rangle of flexibility of hip joint than football players. Similarly, there are differences in flexibility ranges with an individual athlete in different joints or in the same joints of pair organs. The main factors which affect flexibility include:
A basic precondition necessary for flexibility development is relaxed muscle. Relaxation means the opposit of muscle contraction, i. e. “inactivity” of the muscle caused by a cease in the Central Nervous System. Muscle contraction is caused by a neural impulse towards muscle fibre. The neural impulse releases calcium ions present in the muscle. If adenosintriphosphate (ATP), which represents fuel for skeletal muscles, is present, calcium ions bind with actin and myosine and form electrostatic bond. The formed bond can be compared to two counter-polarized magnets which pull on each other. As a consequence of such a bond, actin fibers are being dragged in between myosine fibers and the muscle fiber is shortened while tension in the muscle appears. The result of this process is muscle contraction. If muscle fibers do not receive any neural impulses, the muscle fibre stretches and tension decreases. An example of this is extension in the knee joint when during contraction of quadriceps femoris, hamstrings relax. In skeletal muscles, there are two kinds of proprioreceptors (Golgi tendon bodies and muscle spindles) which provide information to the Central Nervous System on changing length of a muscle. Golgi bodies monitor all tension stages of muscle tension; however, they best perceive the tension caused by muscle contratio. Muscle spindles have two types of neural receptors. Primary receptors react to both dynamic and tonic stretching. Secondary neural receptors reacto only to tonic stretching. The reaction is determined by the length and speed of muscle stretching (e.g. in swing stretching). Tonic response is determined only by the length of the muscle (e.g. in static stretching). Factors limiting muscle stretching Stretch reflex is the basic function of nervous system; it maintains muscle stretching and reacts to sudden, unexpected muscle stretch. This relfex is a protection from injuries caused by dangerous muscle stretching. A typical example of this is patellar reflex: if patella is knocked on, muscle spindles, which are parallel to muscle fibers, are stretched, which results in stimulation of neural receptors. The consequence of this is neural impulse into quadriceps femoris which shortens. However, this reflex presents a problem for targeted stretching. Cease of stretch reflex presents a necessary precondition for stretching the muscle. Factor supporting muscle stretching Reciprocal inervation is enabled by synchronous control of muscle activity by the Central Nervous System. Muscles usually work in pairs; when one is shortened (biceps brachii), the other must be prolonged (triceps brachii) and vice versa. If there appears inervation and subsequent muscle contraction of one muscle, the other muscle is automatically relaxed. This phenomenon is used to achieve relaxation in muscles which we want to stretch. An example: if we want to stretch hamstrings, it is necessary to contract quadriceps femoris in the position of modifiable hurdle sitthing. Reciprocal inervation causes hamstring relaxation. Myotatic inverse reflex is related to the protective function of Golgi bodies. If the intensity of muscle stretch exceeds critical limit, a reflex which ceases muscle stretch appear immediately, which causes immediate relaxation of the muscle and decrease in excessive stretch. Relaxation is a protection mechanism which prevents from tendon and muscle injuries which could otherwise appear in the form of their being torn off tentacles. Flexibility development is based on intentional supression of factors which limit joint range and on introducing sitmuli which lead to maintaining or increasing the range. In practice, it is:
There are several approaches to flexibility classification. In sports practice, static and dynamic flexibility is distunguished. Static flexibility is characterized by achieving maximum current movement rangle by slow movement. Dynamic flexibility is characteristic in repeated achieving maximum rangle by standard or increased speed. From the point of view of the causes of movement, we can differentiate active flexibility when limits are reached by active muscle contraction (concentric muschle contraction of quadriceps femori causes hamstring stretching). The movement range of passive flexibility is determined by actions of external forces (e.g. gravity action or with the help of a partner). Training flexibility Requirements for optimum level of flexibility spring from a specific sports discipline. Joint range must be on a level sufficient for allowing the athlete to strive for optimum performance of sports skills. A necessary precondition to increase joint range is a relaxed muscle. The sense of relaxing muscles is to regulate their reflexive activity and thus, relax its stretching prior to futher stretching as much as possible. Stretching muscles without sufficient stretching is not efficient. A further step is applying stretching exercises. A certain level of force plays an important part in the process of flexibility development. It is important for achieving limits in an active way. It is also as important to maintain muscle balance. In some sports disciplines, one-sided load prevails (tennis, volleyball, floorball), which may lead to violating balance. Muscle imbalance appears when there is imbalance between agonists and antagonists. As a rule, one of the muscles is shortened and the other one weakened. An example of this can be the shortening of pectoral muscles and weakening of scapula muscles in volleyball players. As a consequence, shoulders move forward, which causes insufficient movement range at reception outside body axis in volleyball. Another example of muscle imbalance appears in pair limbs in tennis players when the joint range (e.g. in external shoulder rotation) is bigger in the strike arm. A complex training of flexibility includes joint range development, strengthening agonists and antagonists and eliminating muscle imbalance. This process uses the combinations of:
Relaxation exercises The aim of relaxation exercises is to decrease the tension in the muscle before it is subsequently stretched. The basis is movements in individual segments of the body such as flickering, shaking, swinging or rotating with an emphasis on decreasing tension as much as possible. A suitable position for performing relaxation exercises is lying on the back or side, often with the help of a partner. Individual movements are performed in 15-30 repetitions. The aim of relaxation exercises is decreased tension in skeletal muscle before its stretching. Stretching exercises Stretching is a name of the process of controlled stretching of skeletal muscles and ligament structures. Three basic stretching techniques can be distinguished:
Static stretching represents a method of slow, intentional muscle stretching, which means stretching the muscle to the limit position and maintain it. Muscles must be warm, well perfused and relaxed. An example of this can be static hamstring stretching. There are 3 stages:
This method is considered very saving and safe. The main advantages include:
Dynamic stretching uses motor energy of the parts of the body to multiple fast or short muscle contraction which is stopped in limit position. Multiple repetitions (15-30 times). Proprioreceptive stretching One of the methods presents stretching the muscle after its preceding contract-relax. Basis: muscle tension increased with resistance enables subsequent bigger passive stretching. Procedure:
The effect of stretching
Basic principles of flexibility development
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The aim of technical preparation is to create and improve sports skills. Each sports skill has a given way of solving a motor task (contents of a sports skill) in accordance with the rules of a given sport, biomechanical rules and locomotive possibilities of the athlete which are referred to as technique. Specific individual adjustment of technique by an athlete is referred to as style. Procedure of acquiring motor skills:
Stages of Technical PreparationThe process of learning motor skills is based on theoretical findings on motor learning. Accomplishing the aim is conditioned by:
The process of learning is not linear and even; it is a long-term process unlimited by time. In practice, the following stages appear:
Drill Tasks:
This stage proceeds in the follow axis:
Improving Tasks:
All information is integrated in a single unit of complex locomotive analyzer which is sport specific. Firming and improving is carried out through sophisticated repetitions of relevant exercises which lead towards automation. This stage continues to improve mainly kinematic (time and space) and dymanic (strength) parameters of motion structures. Techique should be gradually interconnected with its fitness basis and energy supply. The main aim of this stage of technical preparation is final technique firming and stabilization. Stabilization Tasks:
The substance of stabilizing technique in this stage lies in automation of relevant structures and actions of skills structures and their continuous adjusting to competition conditions. Methods of Technical Preparation:
Tactical PreparationIt is necessary to differentiate between two terms:
Implementing tactical actions is carried out on the following axis:
Tactics is being solved within competition situations which are characterized by conditions. We can differentiate between two types of conditions:
Drilling Tactical Skills Tactical skills are understood as certain procedures or models of competition situations solutions acquired by training. Acquiring tactical skills presupposes influencing the athlete’s:
Principles of drilling tactical skills:
Solving competition situations When creating strategy plan, pay attention to the following:
Solving practical situations is based on the level of preparation during training and the extent of their indefiniteness (i.e. they cannot be prepared in advance) We differentiate among:
Psychological PreparationThe aim of psychological preparation is to make use of psychological findings to increase efficiency of other sports training components and, within competition, fix efficiency at the level equal to acquired training level. In other words, it attempts to minimize effects of negative mental influences and at the same time positively influences the athletes’ psyche in order to reach high sports efficiency. The approach of psychological preparation deals with:
Model TrainingThe starting point of model training is theoretical knowledge of adaptation process from the point of view of psychology. Adaptation stimuli are represented by situational influences which negatively influence the athlete’s activity with their psychogenic effects. What follows is that it is necessary to include competition situations “models” into training. Coach is required to be inventive, creative, like an actor or director, and able to convicingly influence his trainees who on the other hand must cooperate during model training by accepting the rules of the model. An example of model training can be repeated finish of set endings in volleyball under mental pressure when the score is unfavourable. Regulation of Current Mental StatesCurrent mental states can be divided into pre-start, competition and post-competition. Pre-start states – they appear when the athlete realizes he/she participates in an important competition. These states gradually melt into in-competition states. Post-competition states – the are evoked by subjective assessment of the course of competition and can last for several hours. The starting point for regulating such states are findings on activation level of athletes (see Chapter 3). According to level of activation and its direction:
Post-competition states origin from success or failure. Failure causes depression, neurotic manifestations, resignation, hopelessness. Means of regulations can be divided into for groups following their aim:
Particular means selection is a specific, to a certain extent individual matter. Regulation of Interpersonal RelationshipsIn a sports team, there are two basic types of relationships among athletes: competition and cooperation. Both of these must be present in the team in an optimum degree. If competition overwhelms cooperation, there is rivalry in the team which affects cooperation (the trouble of several individualities). High level of cooperation without competition usually leads to general benevolence which results in missing motivation. Page 10
Anyone who performed some sport actively can certainly remember their beginnings and their first coaches. For a child who starts to attend some children sports club at an early age, the figure of the coach means authority. Coaches working with beginning athletes usually determine whether sport shall become part of their entire lives or not. Therefore, the approach and knowledge of the coach is of utmost importance. In children sports training, the coach is faced with many difficulties which he or she must be aware of. The most important difficulties are as follows: Not every top athlete can be a high-quality coach of children. In common practice of sports clubs, youth coaches are recruited among the top athetes of the club. Such coaches start training children without any practical experience and often also without required coach license. Not everyone is able to face this situation because experience which they have acquired during their active career need not (and often they do not) work with children. Not every active parent can be a good-quality coach of children. Frequently, coaches of children are recruited among parents. In good faith, they may make crucial mistakes in the training process, often in the area of technical and fitness training. Ambitious coach. This type of coach is too much focused on immediate performance without respecting the age of the children. This approach suits the training conception of early specialization. Negative relationshipt coach-child as an athlete. Affection and unfortunately aversion as well are manifested in any relationship. More often than not, it happens that the coach prefers some of his or her trainees on the basis of his or her affection. Children who are being disadvantages in this manner can be subject to frustration and consequently lose any interest in the specific sport. Parent as a sponsor not only in team sports. Financial aids from parents is perfectly alright. However, coaches cannot be under pressure of such parents-sponsors who can feel that they have thus for example “ensured” that their children will remain in the basic team forever. Child as an instrument to make parents’ dreams and desires come true. It is a very frequent phenomenon in training practice. Parents often have the feeling that their offspring should achieve what they themselves never have. This phenomenon is more often manifested in individuale sports such as tennis. The parents’ participating in the competition can then present a crucial stressor for their children. The above difficulties may occur as early as in the first stage of sports traiing (the stage of being introduced to the sport). Various other negative phenomena occur in sports where the top level is reached in young age, e.g. in gymnastics, figure skating etc. In children sports training, the coach should tak care to complete the following three priorities: 1. Not to harm children physically or psychically. At present, children suffer from specific troubles such as scoliosis, fatique fractures, premature bone ossification etc. due to excessive and unbalanced training load. Likewise, depression or long-term states of frustration may lead to psychic diseases. 2. To create a relationship of the children to sport as a whole-life activity. It is not possible for all children to reach the top level. The coach must attempt to make active sporting a whole-life companion for his trainees. 3. To create stable foundations for the training in the next age category. Sports training must be focused on managing basic constructions which are necessary for a competition to be carried out. It means teaching children technique, basic rules, basic standards of behavior, tactical procedures necessary to carry out the game; all this in compliance with respective development of motor skills. Characteristics of the age period between 6 and 18 in children and youthThe division of the age categories is only informational as individual ontogenetic development plays a significant part. Nevertheless, the overview provides a basic insight into the issue of sports preparation. Younger school age (6-11 years)
Older school age (11-15 years)
Youth age (15-18 years)
The above differentiation is based on calendar year which is only informational and does not inlcude individual speed of ontogenetic changes. Such changes are reflected in biological age. Acceleration means ontogenetic development which is faster than standard. Retardation means the opposite, i.e. ontogenetic development which is slower than standard. Basic methods of determining biological age include:
Sports age is a period during which the athlete is subject to systematic sports preparation. It may be the case that a younger athlete with longer training practice can master sports skills better than much older sportsman. While creating the conception of sports training, it is necessary to realize that it is a long-term development of performance of each athlete from childhood until adulthood. The contents of the training process must therefore respect biological maturity whereas the biggest performance can be reached only by an athlete who acquired the basis of top performance as early as in childhood and youth. Usually, three kinds of age are differentiated in sports: calendar, biological and sports. Both coaches and athetes must respect all three of them. In this respect, there are two conceptions whic hcan lead to a certain maximum individual efficiency.
Conception of children sports trainingSports training always focuses on characteristic skills for the given sport. The basic difference between the two discussed conceptions is to what extent specific and general stimuli, means and methods contained in the training proces are applied. During the initial years of training, the main aim is not big performance but learning a wide background of motor skills, not only specific movements in the area of the given sport. Conception of early specialization This way, a young athlete can reach relatively maximal performance sooner. However, specific load is always a one-sided movement involving the same muscles all the time and there is a danger of muscle imbalance as well as various damages and injuries. Unfinished biological maturing presents a higher probability of health problems. Training specialization is always characteristic in big share of typical (specialized) training means, methods and forms for the given sport. A number of researches on early specialization result in the following:
Still, some kinds of sports (e.g. technical-aesthetic etc.) require early specialization because top performance in these sports is reached prior to the age of 20. A typical example is sports gymnastics where mainly in women, top performances are often reached in childhood – at the ages betwen 14 and 16. Top level sports gymansts of a higher age (over 25) are rather an exception. Conception of training respective of age Training respective of the age of a child or youth is interpreted as process respecting their physical and psychical maturity; this process is appropriate for most sports. The advantage of this concept is preventing young organism from damage as well as natural sports development. This concept allows keeping top performance for many years during adulthood. The sports life of every athlete must be divided into several stages which are in concordance with their physical and psychic state, maturity, performance development, stages of skill learning etc. We usually divide the sports life of an athlete into four stages:
Stage of Introductory Sports Pre-Training The main aim is to gain the children for sport and the most important tasks should contribute to their proper physical and psychic development. This stage usually lasts between 1 and 3 years. The prevailing training means and exercises are general, which can help to develop mainly coordinative abilities since the most important task is to teach children as many movement skills as possible. The intensity should be low and volume should be increasing during years of regular training. In this stage, the most effective training means is game. Stage of Basic training The main aim is to create permanent positive attitude of children to sport and accepting sport as a part of life style. This stage has to complete several tasks: harmonic development of children and youth, strenghtening health, supporting natural physical and psychic development. Good performance is not a priority and accent is given to further development of coordinative abilities, speed and movement dynamics. The load should be mainly universal and specific load has to be aimed practicing basic technique (children technique) of skills in the given sport. The rate of specific and general training is about 20:80 per cent at the age of 11/12, and 50:50 per cent at the age of 14/15. This stage usually lasts for 2 or 4 years. The age of children going through this stage can vary, however, for most sports; it is usually during older school age. E.g. technical–aesthetic sports (gymnastics, figure skating) start very early (about the age of 5/6), endurance sports can start systematic training later, about the age of 13/14. Stage of Specific training The first stage is a transition from basic to specific training. High performance is still a prospective aim, and the competition is not only the criterion of performance but the means of improving performance. The load of training process is increasing (both in volume and intensity). The technical skills are continuously fixed with the help of specific exercises and means, under high load and also with increasing fatigue or in different competition conditions etc. Motor abilities start to develop with respect to the need of specific fitness (specific strength, endurance, velocity). This stage is typical of every sport and lasts for 2 or 4 years. For most sports, this stage stretches over the category of youth, from 14 (15) to 18(19) years of age. However, in gymnastics, it is approximately between 8 and 12 years (girls). Athletes should understand that their training process is a systematic activity and a meaningful part of their lives. Stage of Top training The main aim is to achieve maximal performance and keep it for long time. This stage tops off the long-term training process and it is meant for talented athletes only. Adulthood allows maximal volume and quality of trainings load. In most sports, this stage starts after reaching 19 years of age but in some (technical-aesthetic) sports, the athlete can reach maximal performance early (14 – 18 years). Training volume is very high, 300 – 330 days per year, 700 – 1,500 hour of load. Training process should be adjusted to individual differences among athletes but with maximum focus on specific load, approximately 10-20% of general load and 80-90% of specific load. The main tasks are: to reach maximal level of technical skills and movement economy, to achieve very high level of tactical abilities, to achieve maximal level of training (strength, endurance, speed etc.). Specific development of motor abilitities in children trainingLogical procedure of developing individual motor abilities is based on the development rules. During life, there are periods which are suitable for developing specific motor abilities – sensitive periods. If coaches make use of such periods, they can form a very good background for future sports life of their athletes. An overview of sensitive periods and specific differences in children training: Speed abilitiesBoys7-14 years of age
Endurance abilitiesAerobic endurance whenever Anearobic endurance from 14-15 years of age on
Strength abilitiesBoys13-15 years of age Period till 10 years of age
Period between 10 and 12 years of age
Period between 13 and 15 years of age Period of systematic strength development The effectivity of individual muscles incereases due to the influence of sex and growth hormons. Focusing on three basic areas:
In exercises which focus on handling the axis of a free weight
It is based on methods and means used in previous periods of strength training. Usually in the form of circle procedure. The means mentioned above are made use of together with expanders, light weights etc. Applying special methods of strength training (e.g. speed method, effort repetition etc.). Coordination abilitiesBoysuntil 12 years of age The training of coordination abilitites has been dealt with in Chapter 9. Page 11
The way to controlled training process and meaningful planning of training was long, starting with the first of attempts and errors, leading to scientific based planning which has started to develop during the 19th Century. Developing or training physical abilities has existed, though in a basic form at first, since the ancient times; it was used for Olympic Games preparation or for military purposes. First systematic principles in training were probably used by the Greek athlete Milon who implemented the principle of systematic planning as early as in the 6th Century BC. He determined the training cycle by carrying a bull calf on his back each day until the animal reached maturity. Since the mid-19th century studies on human muscular performance have been appearing and these scientific results were published in the then popular Philosophical Magazine. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, first studies on human fatigue during work and exercise appeared. Modern scientific theories from the mid of 20th century formed the basis of training planning – periodization. It was introduced to training practice in the 1950s and early 1960s when coaches realized that focusing on an important competition was more effective than preparing athletes for a year-round competition programme as the athletes are not able to withstand the enormous training load to which they were subjects. The roots and idea of periodization come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the General Adaptation Syndrome which was first used by the athletic community in the late 1950s. Selye identified sources of biological stress and referred to them as eustress, which denotes beneficial muscular strength and growth, and as distress, which is stress that can lead to damage, disease, and necrosis of tissue. Periodization is an organized approach to training which involves progressive cycling of various aspects of a training program during a specific period of time. It can be defined as the purposeful variation of a training programme over time, so that the competitor gets closer his or her optimum adaptive potential just before an important event. It is based on the principles of multilateral development, specialization, variety and long-term training. Out of those, the first three are necessary for optimizing physiological factors, whereas long-term planning provides the athlete during with gradual improving of physical performance in the course of time. In the periodization, the training process is distributed in time intervals, the magnitude of which may range from days to weeks, months or even years. During each of these time intervals, a particular element of performance is accented (e.g physical fitness, technique etc.) and time intervals must respect the main tasks of ATC macrocycle – performance development, stabilization or tapering. The original idea of periodization is the basis of training process planning for all age categories or performance levels. System and conditions for good and purposeful training process planningPeriodization is a concept, not a model. It is a systematic attempt to gain control over training adaptive responses while preparing for a competition. This concept is created with the help of several key elements which we can be divided into two parts: planning macrostructure and microstructure. Basic elements of macrostructure:
Basic elements of microstructure:
Stages of ATC – macrocycleThe aim of the macrocycle is to develop fitness, training, sports skills, tactic abilitites, psychological features, get experience and reach top performance in competition. Fitness and performance are improved during stages and cycles, therefore the process of periodization is described as outlining the macrocycle (ATC) into smaller and better manageable parts to ensure correct peaking forward to the main competition of the year. Basically, the periodization of an annual plan has four major stages: preparatory phase, pre-competition (pre-season) phase, competition (season) phase and transition (off-season) phase. Table 18 Basic scheme of annual training plan (macrocycle)
A traditional periodization scheme plans for one peak only known as mono-cycle, focusing only on one major competition (e.g. Local Championship, National Championships, World Championship or Olympic Games). At present, many sports combine the schedule of local international competitions and use a different type of periodization. For instance, track and field has two major championships per year, indoors and outdoors, swimming has short and long course championships etc. This type of plan is called a bi-cycle. Other sports, such as wrestling, boxing, or martial arts use also a tri-cycle, or plans with multiple peaks separated by time when the athletes compete in top competitions even several times per year. Figure 17 ATC Monocycle Figure 18 ATC Bi-cycle Preparatory phasePreparatory phase is the most important part of ATC. During this stage, the athlete gains required level of fitness and technical quality for the following periods. In some kind of sports (e.g. endurance sports), it is the longest stage of annual cycle. During this stage, the training process has to ensure creating the training basis for future performance and develop preconditions for further improvement of fitness, training and performance. The principle of training during preparatory phase lies in appropriate volume and intensity of load, the kind of exercise, and including these components to the training plan at the right time and in the right rate. Preparatory phase is of an analytic-synthetic character and may contain two or three shorter training periods. The first part is usually analytic, the training of motor abilities and technical and tactical skills is trained separately, the training mode is general and the load varies from low to medium, aiming at continuous development of performance. In the second part of this period, individual components are trained together, it is necessary to start to apply special training means; load is more intensive. The third period requires a clear shift to special training, used training means must be in accordance with actual competition movements, duration and intensity. The training methods are strictly sport-specific and large-scale exercise load (volume and intensity) is necessary for adaptation and further progress in the first transition period. During prepeartory phase, the athlete gradually changes the rate of specific and general training means. In the first stage, general training means prevail, in the second and third stages specific training means are prevalent. At the beginning of this period, the training process is focused on volume, in the second part of the period, intensity increases. Pre-competition phaseThis period is included about 2 or 4 weeks before competitive period (season) and it should not be very long because it may result in decrease in motivation or problems with maintained reached fitness level without top competitions etc. The main task is increasing performance. Fitness training is specific, technical skills are stabilized for competition load and the variability of race movement. The main principles of training in first transition period are the following:
Tapering training must also respect individual specifics and current health condition of the athlete. Competitive phaseThe main aim is to demonstrate the maximal level of performance. During season, the athlete usually competes in top, most important or second-level competitions. This stage is created in relationship with the dates of important competitions and can be either simple or complex. Simple competition period lasts for 2-3 months while the complex one for 4-5 months. In individual or endurance sports, this period is usually divided into two parts. The first one is reserved for developing desired performance level; the athlete usually takes part in second-level or qualification competitions (the first in-season period). During the second part, optimum hight level of performance is maintained and the athlete should reach the best results and sports shape (the second in-season period). During competition phase, sports games usually have a specific model of regular matches (1-3 matches a week). Sports shape can be kept for about 2 or 4 weeks, therefore tapering for sports shape should be implemented for the main race only or twice during a long race season, with some recovery periods included between the periods of sports shape. For the rest competition phase, the athlete should maintain a good level of performance. Planning training during season must respect the balance of high quality of load and sufficient time for recovery. Transition phasePeriods of demanding motor activity must be alternated with relaxation periods. This period usually lasts betwen 2 and 6 weeks, depending on the length of pre-competition and competition phase. The frequency of training is low and training units are short. The content of training is usually general and must support physical and psychic recovery. Transition period is characterized with:
Training cyclesEarly periodization models were usually based on the competitive calendar more than on adaptive processes because information regarding the latter was limited. As the knowledge about sport training theory has expanded, the training effects are based on exploiting biological principles. The rate of involution (decay) and time of maintaining the level of various training effects is a central basic building element in cyclic program design. The time of maintaining training effects is a function of the half-life of structures synthesized during adaptive tissue remodeling. As might be expected, their time courses vary. Chronically, involution is modulated by the length of the preparation period. In general, the greater the duration of a training program, the more stable its residual training effect. This allows the fitness qualities acquired during one phase to be maintained with relatively small volume-loads during the next, such that emphasis can be redirected and cumulative fatigue problems can be minimized. The most important objective of contemporary periodization is to systematically converge the cumulative or interactive effects of various means, methods, frequency of stimulus, organisation’s forms etc. The same value as a stimulus has the time of regeneration. This time is important part of adaptations processes and the time for recovery after training units of various tasks must be respected. This time is different for development of strength, endurance or velocity. Approximate time for recovery after various types of load:
Training cycles – basic components of periodization Annual training plan – macrocycle (long-term cycle) is created from shorter time cycles: mesocycle (mid-length time period, several-week training cycle), microcycle (short-term training cycle, usually one-week training cycle) and training units. Thanks to these cycles, the coach can adjust training load, recovery and main tasks. The combination of different types of training cycles within the annual plan depends on in-season specific goals. The basic macrocycle is called annual training cycle. Mesocycle (MeC) usually lasts between 2 and 6 weeks and each macrocycle typically includes several of them. The shortest training cycle is microcycle (MiC) which usually lasts for one week (ranging from 3 to 10 days) and several MiC form a mezocycle. Training volume and intensity varies in individual cycles. The profile of each cycle depends on the competition level, age, biological maturity and on the specific demands of a given sport and ATC period. Microcycle Microcycle is probably the most important tool in the planning of training. MiC is a group of several training units. MiC trainings are usually planned for one week (from Monday to Sunday). The structure and contents of the weekly microcycle are determined by the main training task of the given annual macrocycle, type of MiC, quantity, quality and the nature of the training stimulus. Variation of training volume and intensity within and between microcycles is a fundamental aspect of coaching. Table 19 presents basic types of MiC. Table 19 Types of microcycle
Building a microcycle (Mic) During mesocycle, each microcycle can be repeated for more times for the reason of a higher number of stimuli to increase training or performance. For each MiC, it is necessary to set task (e.g. focusing on the fitness, technical or tactical components), exact volume level, intensity and specific training methods which should be used. To complete the main target and specifics tasks of MiC, it is necessary to include two or three training units with similar focus and contents. To develop motor abilitites, training units must contain overloading stimuli (1-3 training units). Repetitions of specific stimuli is a key feature to learn technical elements or develop motor abilitites. Each MiC is usually of different load (volume, intensity). A basic macrocycle model contains 52 MiC, each for 7 days, though the length of MiC can vary from 3 to 10 days with a different structure such as 3+1 day or training units (three days of load, one free day), 5+1 and it is also possible to use MiC with one, two or three peaks. In one day, the athlete can manage from one to three training units (TU) depeding on the training volume and intensity provided recovery is included. Depending on the age and performance level, MiC can contain between 5 and 20 training units within the respective week. Training load of the given MiC is thus determined by the combination of training volume, intensity and the length of rest. Thus, MiC must be built in such a way so as to eliminate fatique accumulation and to recover energy sources. The following steps ensure optimum quality and quantity of training for given MiC:
Mesocycle (MeC) In individual sports, a mesocycle usually represents a training block in the duration of 2-6 weeks. The duration of a mesocycle depends on the objectives and type of training used in each stage of the annual plan. From the point of view of physiology, mezocycle is used to develop or improve specific aspects of functional indicators of an athlete. The overall aim is to improve competitive performance. The types of MeC are similar to Mic:
A typical structure of a pre-competition phase involves from two to four microcycles; they are usually “development”,”accumulation” and recovery microcycles. During competition phase, MeC vary in length, usually they are shorter, up to three weeks. Pre-competition and competition phase include other MiC such as‘‘intensification’’, ‘‘tapering’’ or racing etc. Usual practice is to increase training load (volume) in MeC focused on endurance but decrease volume during tapering and competition microcycles. In MeC foscusing on speed development, intensity increases wheres load volume decreases. Generally, bigger volume of training process is reached at lower training intensity, and similarly, higher training intensity is reached with smaller load volume. Experience has shown that three weeks of increasing training load represents the usual limit of positive adaptation and the human ability to tolerate graded stress without signs of overtraining and fatigue accumulation. After thre weeks, increasing fatigue starts to make the benefits of training smaller. With increasing training fitness, it is possible to implement training load in recovery periods at a higher level than it would be possible earlier, at the beginning of pre-season. Figure 19 Some typical training schemes of different MeC types, columns show load volume Macrocycle Macrocycles can be composed of two, three or more mezocycles which must meet specific target(s). On the whole, when building a macrocycle, it is necessary to address the following features:
If necessary, arrange for desired rate of individual adjustment while using specific training methods or load during annual macrocycle. Principles of sports trainingPrinciples of sports training represent recomendations, instructions or standards for coaching aiming at ensuring as much training effect as possible. Principle of the unity of versatile and specialized trainingFor optimum development of an athlete, an optimum proportion of versatile and specialized training is necessary which changes in individual stages of sports training. The volume of specialized training increases gradually. Premature specialization is a mistake, i.e. high increase in specialized training in a very young age, which results in quick increase in sports performance. Principle of continuous training processThe basic precondition of increasing and maintaining acquired sports performance is systematic training activity. It is necessary to keep optimum frequency of training units which follow the principle of supercompensation. The requirement therefore is to continuously alternate load and rest while respecting individual specifics of athletes. Principle of gradual load increasingLoad volume must respect the current training fitness of the athlete. In a long-term perspective, load must increase gradually. On a regular basis, it is not possible to increase load without any limit. During individual stages, training periods and cycles, load increases, stabilizes and subsequently decreases. In a long-term perspective, load volume is of a wave-shape character with a long-term tendency to increase load. Principle of wave-like load processActivity which varies in waves is typicial of the whole living nature. Therefore, the wave-like character is moc suitable even for the process of training load (its volume and intensity). In other words, it must be carried out in changes which represent waves (just like it is not possible to eat one’s favourite meal every day). From the point of view of training in order to reach maximal performance, the intensity ways falls behind the volume wave; sports shape appears only after volume has decreased. Cycle principleThe precondition of effective adaptation changes in athete’s organism is systematic repetition of contents and means of methods and forms of sports training with the aim to gradually increase sports performance. Variability principleWithin meeting the aims and objetives of individual training cycles, it is necessary to alternate training contents – means, methods, type, training load. In other words, it is necessary to keep the organism stressed so as to keep ti “load-sensitive”. |
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