Which principle of training should be applied to develop and increase flexibility gradually?

People get involved in exercise for many reasons: to improve their health and physical condition, to achieve a sporting ambition, to relieve the tension and stress of daily life, and to lose weight. It makes them feel good. Participating in sport encourages co-operation in team sports, develops competitiveness, provides a physical challenge and the opportunity to meet new people and make new friends.

Training to improve an athlete's performance obeys the principles of training: specificity, overload, rest, adaptation and reversibility (SORAR).

Specificity

You must perform exercises involving joint action to improve the range of movement for a particular joint action. It is quite possible for an athlete to have good shoulder joint mobility but poor hip mobility. Conducting shoulder mobility exercises may further improve shoulder mobility, but it will not affect hip mobility.

In addition to developing general mobility levels in an athlete, coaches need to consider the specific mobility requirements of a given event. The coach can analyse the technique of their event, identify which joint actions are involved and determine which need to be improved in terms of the range of movement. For example, a thrower might require shoulder and spine mobility improvements. A hurdler might need to develop their hip mobility.

The amount and nature of each athlete's mobility training will vary according to the individual athlete's event requirements and their range of movement for each joint action. It may be necessary to measure the range of movement for particular joint actions to determine the present range and future improvement.

Specificity is an important principle in strength training. The exercise must be specific to the type of strength required and is therefore related to the particular demands of the event. The coach should know the predominant types of muscular activity associated with their specific event, the movement pattern involved, and the type of strength required. Although specificity is important, every schedule must include exercises of a general nature (e.g. power clean, squat). These exercises may not relate too closely to any athletic event's movement. Still, they give a balanced development and provide a strong base upon which particular exercise can be built.

Heavy throwing implements or weighted belts may seem the obvious solution to the specificity problem. Most authorities consider that the training implement should be kept within 15% of the competition weight in the throwing events. Still, the athlete will probably unconsciously develop compensatory movements in their technique in adjusting to the new weight.

Can we be specific in the speed of movement? Training at low velocity increases low-velocity strength substantially but has little effect on high-velocity strength (Coyle and Fleming, 1980).

Is there any justification for slow velocity strength training for athletes who have to perform movements at high speed? Yes. Slow velocity training may be of value in stimulating maximum muscle adaptation. Muscle growth (an increase in contractile strength) is related to the tension developed within the muscle (Goldberg, 1975). When athletes perform high-velocity strength work, their force is relatively low and therefore fails to stimulate substantial muscular growth. If performed extensively, the athlete may not be inducing maximum adaptation with the muscles. Thus, the athlete must use fast and slow movements to train the muscles.

Overload

When an athlete performs a mobility exercise, they should stretch to the end of their range of movement. In active mobility, the end of the range of motion is known as the active end position. Improvements in mobility can only be achieved by working at or beyond the active end position.

• Passive exercises involve passing the active end position, as the external force can move the limbs further than the active contracting of the agonist's muscles
• Kinetic mobility (dynamic) exercises use the momentum of the movement to bounce past the active end position

A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity. The load must be progressively increased to further adaptive responses as training develops, and the training stimulus is gradually raised. Overload can be progressed by:

• increasing the resistance, e.g. adding 5kg to the barbell
• increasing the number of repetitions with a particular weight
• increasing the number of sets of the exercise (work)
• increasing the intensity - more work at the same time, i.e. reducing the recovery periods

Recovery

Rest is required for the body to recover from the training and allow adaptation. An inadequate amount of rest may lead to overtraining.

Adaptation

The body will react to the training loads imposed by increasing its ability to cope with them. Adaptation occurs during the recovery period after the training session is completed.

If exercises lasting less than 10 seconds (ATP-CP energy system) are repeated with a full recovery (approximately 3 to 5 minutes), an adaptation in which ATP and CP stores in the muscles are increased.

More energy is available more rapidly and increases the maximum peak power output. If overloads are experienced for up to 60 seconds, with a full recovery, it is found that glycogen stores are enhanced.

The most noticeable weight training effect with heavy loads on fast-twitch muscle fibres is larger and stronger muscles (hypertrophy).

The adaptation rate will depend on the exercise sessions' volume, intensity and frequency. In their recent investigation, Burgomaster et al. (2008)[3] report that six weeks of low-volume, high-intensity sprint training induced similar changes in selected whole-body and skeletal muscle adaptations as traditional high-volume, low-intensity endurance workouts undertaken for the same intervention period.

Hawley (2008)[2]states that the time of adaptation may be quicker for high-intensity sprint training compared to low-intensity endurance training but that the two training regimens elicit similar adaptations over a more extended period.

Reversibility or Detraining

Improved ranges of movement can be achieved and maintained by regular use of mobility exercises. If an athlete ceases mobility training, their range of movement will decline over time to those maintained by their other physical activities.

When training ceases, the training effect will also stop. It gradually reduces to approximately one-third of the rate of acquisition (Jenson and Fisher, 1972). Athletes must ensure that they continue strength training throughout the competitive period, although at a reduced volume, or newly acquired strength will be lost

Detraining risk for athletes

The effects of a long period of inactivity on physical fitness come from a UK case study of an Olympic rower (Godfrey et al. 2005)[1], who took more than 20 weeks to recover his fitness after an eight-week lay-off.

Although the athlete in question took time off in response to the need for a physical and mental break rather than because of illness and injury, this case study has clear implications for injured athletes.

An elite heavyweight male rower and current Olympic champion, the athlete allowed himself the luxury of eight weeks of inactivity after competing in the Sydney Olympic Games in September 2000. His fitness was assessed using a lab-based incremental rowing test on four separate occasions: eight weeks before the Olympics, after eight weeks of inactivity, after eight weeks of retraining, and after 12 weeks of training.

The key findings were as follows: After eight weeks detraining

• V02peak had decreased by 8%. After eight weeks of retraining it had increased by only 4%, returning to just below pre-Olympic values after a further 12 weeks;
• At peak oxygen consumption, power fell from a pre-Olympic value of 546W to 435W - a reduction of 20%. After eight weeks retraining, it had increased by 15%, resuming pre-Olympic values after a further 12 weeks;
• Power at reference blood lactate concentrations declined by 27% but returned to just below or above pre-Olympic levels after 20 weeks' retraining.

The researchers recommend that training programs limit complete inactivity periods to no more than two to three weeks. Prolonged periods of inactivity should be avoided, and the training programme should incorporate some form of "maintenance" training where an extended break is desired.

References

1. GODFREY, R.J. et al. (2005) The detraining and retraining of an elite rower: a case study. J Sci Med Sport, 8 (3), p. 314-320
2. HAWLEY, J. (2008) Specificity of training adaptation: time for a rethink? Journal of Physiology, 586 (Pt 1), p. 1–2.
3. Burgomaster KA. et al. (2008) Similar metabolic adaptations during exercise after low volume sprint interval and traditional endurance training in humans. J Physiol. 586. p.151–160

Page Reference

If you quote information from this page in your work, then the reference for this page is:

• MACKENZIE, B. (2000) Training Principles [WWW] Available from: https://www.brianmac.co.uk/trnprin.htm [Accessed

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Key Messages

• Progressive overload implies that the load needs to be slowly increased as we become accustomed to the existing level of resistance to bring about further improvements.
• Specificity focuses on the replication between what is done in training to what is required in the performance or game.
• Reversibility implies that fitness, strength and flexibility improvements will be lost as training ceases.
• The principle of variety suggests that the training program needs to include a range of activities to ensure that motivation remains high.
• A threshold is a starting point for a new state or experience and in regards to exercise often relates to intensity of performance. The lowest level of intensity that will produce a training effect is the aerobic threshold. The highest level is the anaerobic threshold. The zone between the thresholds is the training zone, the area where we need to be working to improve aerobic performance.
• Warm up and cool down are essential to any training program, and particularly for the prevention of injury.

People undertake physical training programs for a variety of reasons; however, the main objective is to improve performance. Other reasons may include weight loss, general fitness improvement, or rehabilitation from injury. Regardless of the reason, there are a number of principles which need to be adhered to when designing training programs to help achieve optimal training outcomes. It is important to remember that programs need to be designed to suit individual activity needs and to suit individual athlete's needs and differences.

Progressive overload

The principle of progressive overload implies that a training effect is produced when the system or tissue is worked at a greater level that it is normally accustomed to working. As the body adapts to these new levels, training should continue to be progressively increased.

Progressive overload can be achieved by varying the frequency, duration and intensity of the training, with increases in intensity having the greatest effect. Considerable stress must be placed on the system or tissue so that improvements can occur. If there is too much overload, fatigue can result as well as potential injury; if training load is too little, the training effect will plateau or decrease. Athletes need to be aware that not all adaptations will occur in the same timeframe and that it is important to increase the workload gradually over a long period so improvements are maintained and overtraining is avoided.

Specificity

The principle of specificity implies that the greatest gains are made when activity in the training program replicates the movements in the game or activity. That is, training should be specific to the:

• task requirements
• energy systems required in the task
• muscle groups required in the task
• components of fitness involved in the task.

For example, to be competitive in their chosen sport, long distance runners need to develop the aerobic energy system and leg muscles. A javelin thrower needs to develop the ATP-PC system to throw while, at the same time, developing shoulder, back and arm muscles specific for throwing and power. A squash player will benefit from playing tennis during practise sessions as there is a transfer of skill even though the technique is slightly different.

Reversibility

The principle of reversibility states that effects of training are reversible, even only after one or two weeks of stopping or reducing training. That is, the training effects will be quickly lost, and the person's performance will decline, and unfortunately often at a rate faster than gains were made. This is often referred to as the detraining effect. Reversibility is evident in all components of fitness such as aerobic and anaerobic fitness, power, strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and speed. Many athletes take part in off-season training programs to maintain their fitness until the next season begins or injured athletes may take part in other activities to maintain their fitness until recovery takes place.

Variety

The principle of variety states that athletes need to be challenged by not only the activity but also by the implementation of the activities and this is often achieved by cross-training. Training can often become repetitious and boring, especially if done for many hours over many weeks over many years. This is particularly evident in endurance activities involving few technical skills, for example swimming and running. While the principle of variety is not essential to improve performance it does make training more interesting and enjoyable. Aerobic, anaerobic, strength and flexibility training can take many forms so it can be easy to incorporate this principle into training programs.

Training thresholds

The principle of training thresholds relates to levels of exercise intensity that are sufficient to produce a training effect. Training thresholds are usually explained in terms of the maximum heart rate in relation to volume of oxygen uptake (VO2). During exercise, the following three factors become important in relation to training thresholds:

• heart rate
• ventilation
  
• blood lactate
  
  .

All these increase in proportion to the intensity of exercise. This appears to be related to maximum oxygen consumption (max VO2

The aerobic training threshold is the lowest intensity at which an athlete needs to work to produce an aerobic training effect, that is, an improvement in the body's ability to use oxygen during exercise. This occurs at approximately 70% of the person's maximum heart rate (MHR), or at approximately 50-60% of that person's max VO2, and is equivalent to a moderately paced jog. At this level a person can conduct a conversation comfortably.

With increased intensity comes a rise in lactic acid representing an increasing reliance on the anaerobic energy system. The point at which lactic acid accumulates is known as the anaerobic training threshold and is usually around 80% MHR or 75% max VO2. The threshold is the maximum speed or effort that an athlete can maintain and still have no increase in lactic acid. The term lactate threshold (LT) is increasingly being used as it is a more precise term because anaerobic energy is continually produced, even at rest, meaning that lactic acid is formed and removed continuously. Click on the following link to gain further understanding of the anaerobic threshold.
http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/lactate-threshold.html

Therefore for an individual to obtain an aerobic training effect they should exercise in the aerobic training zone; that is, between the aerobic and lactate (anaerobic) thresholds. Further reading about training thresholds can be obtained from the following links. http://www.brianmac.co.uk/hrm1.htm

Warm up and cool down

Warming up and cooling down are important components of all training and performance sessions. The warm up aims to prepare the body in readiness for the activity that is to follow by:

• stimulating the cardiorespiratory system thereby increasing blood flow to working muscles
• increasing body temperature
• making the muscles, ligaments and tendons more supple and elastic, and
• reducing the possibility of a muscular tear causing injury.

A warm up should include three stages: a general warm up; stretching; and a specific warm up and should last for a minimum of 10 minutes. The general warm up involves a gentle use of the large muscle groups in a rhythmic manner that progressively increases in intensity. The stretching stage of the warm up involves stretching the major muscle groups in a slow manner, holding each stretch for 10-30 seconds. This is followed by stretching of specific muscles then dynamic stretching to prepare the muscles for the training or performance. The specific warm up stage involves practising performance-like activities and skills that progressively increase the heart rate and use the muscles and ligaments involved

The cool down, which follows the training or performance session, is effectively the same as the warm up, but in reverse, and is aimed at minimising muscle stiffness and soreness. The cool down, while not as intense or involved as the warm up, allows for the active recovery and gives the body time to return the blood to the heart, rather than letting the blood pool in the muscles. This allows the oxygenated blood to 'flush out' the waste products that form during activity and begin to rebuild the energy stores required for the next performance. The cool down should include a period of aerobic work, gradually decreasing in intensity as well as stretching aimed at reducing muscle soreness and aiding recovery.

Student activity
Complete the table below to explore the application of the principles of training to aerobic and strength training. Application of the principles of training to aerobic and strength training   TRAINING PRINCIPLES AEROBIC TRAINING STRENGTH TRAINING Progressive overload Specificity Reversibility Variety Training thresholds Warm up and cool down

Reflect on how the principles of training relates to other areas in this focus question as well as other focus areas for Core 2.

Create a folder of different training programs written for athletes in various sports, or even for various positions within the sport. This should incorporate types of training and training methods, links to energy systems and principles of training as well as psychology, nutrition, recovery strategies and skill acquisition.

• How are the principles of training applied to different sports?
• How do these principles affect performance?