Plants, like animals, can reproduce sexually (as well as asexually). In animals, the organism’s body is always diploid and produces the haploid gametes through meiosis. Plants, unlike animals, have two different generations during their life cycle. A diploid generation produces haploid spores through meiosis, and a haploid generation produces the gametes through mitosis. Flowers are the structures that produce and bear this haploid generation in flowering plants (angiosperms). We will describe the general structure of angiosperms, how the two generations alternate in their life cycle, how this is related to their sexual reproduction, and the differences with gymnosperm reproduction. Show Angiosperm structureAngiosperms belong to the vascular plants, a group of plants that present tissue differentiation including vascular tissue for nutrient transport. The other groups of vascular plants are gymnosperms (pines, cycads, cypresses) and seedless vascular plants (ferns, clubmosses, and horsetails). All vascular plants share a basic body plan and structure of organ systems and tissues. Angiosperm organ systemsAn angiosperm plant has two organ systems (Figure 1):
Figure 1. The angiosperm plant body is organized in an underground root system and an aerial shoot system. Source: Kelvinsong, CC BY-SA 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons.
Angiosperm plant tissuesThe plant organs are made of several tissues, which are divided into three main types:
Besides these differentiated or specialized tissues, there are regions of undifferentiated cells in the plant that continuously divide. These are regions of plant growth called meristems. You can learn more about vascular plants and their organization and structure here. Angiosperm flowering plant life cycleAll plants and some algae have a similar life cycle known as alternation of generations. In this cycle, a sporophyte (diploid non-sexual phase or generation) alternates with a gametophyte (haploid sexual generation). The main stages of a plant life cycle, starting with the zygote formation, can be summarized as follows:
These stages and the names of tissues or structures are common for all plants and algae life cycles (except for the flower part that is specific to angiosperms). Each group of plants has variations or modifications to this basic cycle, and some specific structures differ (like cones for gymnosperms and flowers for angiosperms). The meaning of structures’ names can help you remember their function. For example, the gametophyte produces gametes, the sporophyte produces spores. The diagram below (Figure 2) shows the general life cycle of a plant, you can identify in this cycle the main stages described above. Remember that there are male and female gametes (sperm and eggs respectively) and that they come from separated male and female gametophytes. Thus, gametophyte development has variations for each sex. The general names for structures and tissues change slightly for each gametophyte. Note that for male structures the prefix micro- is added, while for females it is mega- (for example sporocyte becomes microsporocyte and megasporocyte respectively). This reflects the fact that male spores and gametes are usually smaller (micro) than female ones (mega). Figure 2. Diagram of the life cycle of angiosperms. Source: LadyofHats, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. The angiosperm life cycle includes two main parts: since the sporophyte is the non-sexual generation, it corresponds to the growth phase of a plant (some plants can reproduce asexually though). The gametophyte phase corresponds to the sexual reproduction of a plant which we describe below. Angiosperm reproduction cycleThe reproduction cycle in plants corresponds to the sexual generation, the haploid gametophyte. In angiosperms, sexual reproduction occurs in the flower since this structure produces the gametophytes. Below we describe the process for the development of male and female gametophytes separately. The general process is the same, but with some variation for each sex. Development of female gametophyte and gametesThe female gametophyte is produced inside the ovary (the swollen base of a carpel) (Figure 3). An ovary can have one or more ovules. An ovule is composed of a tissue called the megasporangium (plural microsporangia) enclosed by the integuments (two layers of protective tissue that have a small opening called micropyle). One cell in the megasporangium differentiates into a megasporocyte (megaspore’s mother cell). Each megasporocyte enlarges and undergoes meiosis, producing 4 haploid daughter cells that are the megaspores (the first female haploid cells in the plant life cycle). Three of these megaspores usually degenerate and only one survives. Figure 3. Female gametophyte in angiosperms. Left: diagram of gametophyte development (longitudinal view); right: micrograph of a Lilly ovary (cross section), the dashed lines delineate one of the three fused carpels with two ovules showing in this section, one with a visible megasporocyte. Source: left, modified from LadyofHats, Public domain; right, modified from Ilse Anahi Carrasco, CC BY 4.0 ; both images via Wikimedia Commons. The surviving megaspore then goes through mitosis three times, but without cytokinesis (the splitting of the cytoplasm), resulting in one large cell with eight haploid nuclei. Membranes form around six of the nuclei, resulting in six small cells and the original large central cell, with the two remaining nuclei. These seven cells and eight nuclei form the embryo sac that is the female gametophyte. The eight nuclei have specific locations inside the embryo sac:
Development of male gametophyte and gametesThe male gametophyte is produced inside the anther (Figure 4). The anther contains four pollen sacs called microsporangia (singular microsporangium) that enclose many microsporocytes (microspore’s mother cells). Each microsporocyte undergoes meiosis and produces 4 haploid daughter cells that are the microspores (Figure 4, right image, shows numerous microsporocytes and some are undergoing, or have undergone, meiosis resulting in two or four cells). These spores are the first male haploid cells in the plant life cycle and are immature pollen grains. Figure 4: Male gametophyte in angiosperms. Left: diagram of gametophyte development (longitudinal view of anther); middle: mature anthers with pollen grains; right: micrograph of the four microsporangia (cross-section of anther) containing numerous microsporocytes. Source: left, modified from LadyofHats, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons; middle: Ali Shah Lakhani, unsplash.com; right, Bruce Kirchoff, CC BY 2.0, flickr.com Each microspore then goes through mitosis once, resulting in a mature pollen grain with two cells. The mature pollen grain is the male gametophyte. The cells are the tube cell and the generative cell, they are not the gametes yet, the process finishes when the pollen reaches the female reproductive structure. At this point, the anther matures and bursts to release the pollen grains. The pollen is transported from the anther to the pistil of another flower through pollination. once on the female reproductive structure, the pollen grain germinates and the generative cell divides once by mitosis producing two cells, the male gametes (two sperms). Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive structure to the female reproductive structure in seed plants. Difference between angiosperm and gymnosperm life cycleIn vascular plants (ferns and allies, gymnosperms, and angiosperms), the sporophyte is the dominant phase. Gymnosperms and angiosperms (both seed-producing plants) bear the gametophytes inside the organism all the time (the gametophyte is completely dependent on the sporophyte). This means that when you see a fern, pine, cypress, or any flowering plant you see the sporophyte generation. In fact, to see the gametophyte of gymnosperms and angiosperms you would have to look for them in the plant reproductive structures (cones in gymnosperms and flowers in angiosperms) under a microscope because they are so small. There are some differences between the life cycles of gymnosperms and angiosperms, specifically with reproduction. Table 1 below summarizes these differences:
Table 1: The differences between the life cycles of gymnosperms and angiosperms. Angiosperm Life Cycle - Key takeaways
References Mary Ann Clark et al., Biology 2e, Openstax web version 2022 Images links Figure 1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plant.svg Figure 2: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg Figure 3: left, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg; right, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lilium_Ovary_10x-.25.png Figure 4: middle, https://unsplash.com/photos/mNLGCmE35VA; right, https://www.flickr.com/photos/brucekirchoff/21386937054/in/photostream/ |